User:IsotopeSnope/sandbox

The intrinsic kinetic isotope effect (KIE) of Ribulose-1,5-Bisphosphate Carboxylase Oxygenase (RuBisCO) is the isotope effect associated solely with the catalytic step of the enzyme RuBisCO, where a molecule of carbon dioxide is attached to the enolized form of Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP). It can be thought of as a type of primary kinetic isotope effect. The isotopic substitutions that can occur are for carbon (13C or 12C), oxygen (16O, 17O, or 18O), and/or hydrogen (1H or 2H) in and/or RuBP, though currently only a significant isotope effect is seen for carbon isotope (C-isotope) substitution. Generally, the isotope compositions of the products are depleted in 13C (also called "light") relative to the substrate, which is enriched in 13C (also called "heavy"), but the extent of this depletion varies among different types of RuBisCOs. There are four forms of RuBisCO (Form I, II, III, and IV), with Form I being the most abundantly used form. It is used extensively by higher plants, eukaryotic algae, cyanobacteria, and proteobacteria. Form II is also used but much less widespread, and can be found in some species of proteobacteria and in dinoflagellates.

It is currently thought that the intrinsic KIE of Rubisco arises because varying isotopic substitutions in the substrate affect the stability of the transition state, thereby influencing the isotopic composition of the resulting product. This transition state is set by the physical structure of RuBisCO, which varies among the unique RuBisCOs utilized by various organisms, and therefore results in varied KIE seen across organisms. Understanding the intrinsic KIE of RuBisCO is of interest to earth scientists because the light C-isotope signature it creates is left in the geologic record as a biosignature, and data can be used to reconstruct past evolutionary relationships and environmental conditions much deeper in geologic time than traditional body fossils or trace fossils can.

Reaction Details
The fixation of by RuBisCO is a multi-step process. First, a molecule (that is not the  molecule that is eventually fixed) attaches to the uncharged ε-amino group of lysine 201 in the active site to form a carbamate. This carbamate then binds to a magnesium ion (Mg2+) that becomes the central part of Rubisco’s active site. A molecule of RuBP then binds to the Mg2+ ion. The bound RuBP then loses a proton to form a reactive, enodiolate species. The rate-limiting step of the Calvin-Benson Cycle is the addition of CO2 to this 2,3-enediol form of RuBP  This is the stage where the intrinsic KIE of Rubisco occurs because a new C-C bond is formed. The newly formed 2-carboxy-3-keto-D-arabinitol 1,5-bisphophate molecule is then hydrated and cleaved to form two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3 PGA). 3 PGA is then converted into hexoses to be used in the photosynthetic organism’s central metabolism.

Ecological Trade-offs Influence Isotope Effects
The observed intrinsic KIEs of RuBisCO have been correlated with two aspects of its enzyme kinetics: 1) Its "specificity" for CO2 over O2, and 2) Its rate of carboxylation.

Specificity (SC/O)
The reactive enodiolate species is also sensitive to oxygen (O2), which results in the dual carboxylase / oxygenase activity of RuBisCO. This reaction is considered wasteful as it produces products, one molecule of 3-phosphoglycerate and one molecule of 2-phosphoglycolate, that must be catabolized through photorespiration. This process requires energy and is a missed-opportunity for CO2 fixation, which results in the net loss of carbon fixation efficiency for the organism. The dual carboxylase / oxygenase activity of RuBisCO is exacerbated by the fact that O2 and CO2 are small, relatively indistinguishable molecules that can bind only weakly, if at all, in Michaelis-Menten complexes. Different RuBisCOs from different photosynthetic organisms display varying abilities to distinguish between CO2 and O2. This property can be quantified and is termed "specificity" (Sc/o). A higher value of Sc/o means that a RuBisCO's carboxylase activity is greater than its oxygenase activity.

Rate of Carboxylation (VC) and Michaelis-Menten Constant (KC)
The rate of carboxylation (VC) is the rate that RuBisCO fixes CO2 to RuBP under substrate saturated conditions. A higher value of VC corresponds to a higher rate of carboxylation. This rate of carboxylation can also be represented through its Michaelis-Menten constant KC, with a higher value of KC corresponding to a higher rate of carboxylation. Although this rate varies among RuBisCO types, RuBisCO on average fixes only three molecules of CO2 per second. This is remarkably slow compared to typical enzyme catalytic rates, which usually catalyze reactions at the rate of thousands of molecules per second.

Phylogenetic Patterns
It has been observed among natural RuBIsCOs that an increased ability to distinguish between CO2 and O2 (larger values of Sc/o) corresponds with a decreased rate of carboxylation (lower values of VC and KC). The variation and trade-off between Sc/o and KC has been observed across all photosynthetic organisms, from photosynthetic bacteria and algae to higher plants. Organisms using RuBisCOs with a high values of VC and KC, and low values of Sc/o have localized RuBisCO to areas within the cell with artificially high local CO2 concentrations. In cyanobacteria, this Carbon Concentrating Mechanism (CCM) is done through the use of a carboxysome, an icosahedral compartment about 100 nm in diameter that has a protein shell encapsulating the necessary enzymes used for carbon fixation. Organisms without a CCM, like certain plants, instead utilize RuBisCOs with high values of Sc/o and low values of VC and KC. It has been theorized that groups with a CCM have been able to maximize KC at the expense of decreasing Sc/o, because artificially enhancing the concentration of CO2 would decrease the concentration of O2 and remove the need for high CO2 specificity. However, the opposite is true for organisms without a CCM, who must optimize Sc/o at the expense of KC because O2 is readily present in the atmosphere.

This trade-off between Sc/o and VC or KC observed in extant organisms suggest that RuBisCO has evolved through geologic time to be maximally optimized in its current environment. This is supported by the biochemical characterization of an ancestral RuBisCO enzyme, which occupies a middle space between the extreme end-members. It has been theorized that this ecological trade-off is due to the form that 2-carboxy-3-keto-D-arabinitol 1,5-bisphophate in its transient transition state before cleaving into two 3PGA molecules. The more closely the Mg2+-bound CO2 moiety resembles the carboxylate group in 2-carboxy-3-keto-D-arabinitol 1,5-bisphophate, the greater the structural difference between the transition states of carboxylation and oxygenation, and the greater Sc/o value becomes. However, this increasing structural similarity between the transition state and the product state requires strong binding at the carboxyketone group, and this binding is so strong that the rate of cleavage into two product 3PGA molecules is slowed. This theory implies that there is a physical chemistry limitation at the heart of Rubisco’s active site, and may preclude any efforts to engineer a simultaneously more selective and faster Rubisco.

Isotope effects
Sc/o has been correlated with the magnitude of KIE for carbon isotopes, with a higher Sc/o value corresponding with a larger carbon isotope fractionation between the δ13C values of the initial CO2 and the δ13C values of the resulting 3PGA molecules. It has been theorized that because increasing Sc/o means the transition state is more like the product, the O2C---C-2 bond will be shorter, resulting in a higher overall potential energy & vibrational energy. An increased Sc/o means a higher energy transition state, which makes it harder for heavy isotopes (lower in the potential energy well) to overcome required activation energy. Different RuBisCOs, because of their enzyme structure, will have different transition states corresponding with different Sc/o values, which results in the different isotope fractionations among different RuBisCOs.