User:Iz Williams/sandbox

Results suggest that males are more likely than females to perceive interactions in sexual terms and to make sexual judgments. Males seem to perceive friendliness from females as seduction, but this appears to be merely one manifestation of a broader male sexual orientation.

The main strategy of seduction has found to be conversation. It has also been reported that males are more likely to perceive interactions in a sexual way and to make sexual judgements than females. Males have been found to perceive friendliness from females as a seduction technique, however this is only one manifestation of a broader male sexual orientation.

Human Mate Poaching
Seduction is related to Human mate poaching in the scientific literature. Human mate poaching refers to when either a male or female purposefully entices another individual who is already in an established relationship into sexual relations with them. This is a psychological mechanism which had unconscious and conscious manifestations, that in relation to evolutionary psychology has been adaptive to our ancestors in the past and has continued to be functional in modern society.

Human Mate poaching is a form of seduction and can be used as a short term and long term mating strategy among both sexes. Moreover, there are associated costs and benefits to poaching.

Evolutionary speaking, we are derived from our successful ancestors who managed to solve the adaptive problem of finding a mate with the required characteristics needed at that time in their lives, e.g., plenty of resources, physical attractiveness and showing signs of honest fertility. Therefore, our ancestors would have deployed this tactic for enticing a suitable mate, which remain in our psychology. Some evolved poaching behaviours may not be suitable for the current environmental problems current homo sapiens encounter today, similar to the preference we had for fat and sugar, these are leftover by-products from evolution and thus similar poaching behaviours could still remain.

Biosocial Theory of Seduction
Kenrick and Trost (1987) have formulated a Biosocial theory of heterosexual relationships which encompasses several stages of seduction. This includes five stages of natural progression:

1) Individuals identify a potential partner based on desired characteristics such as physical attraction

2) Both individuals establish contact

3) Other traits of the individual that are not necessarily explicit are analysed to determine fitness

4) A physical relationship is established

5) The relationship is either successful and progresses or discontinued

Within these stages, both individuals are interacting in a game which is never explicit, this is because if either individual were to be rejected this would damage their self-esteem. Therefore, when seducing, the overarching aims and goals are never vocalised to the other desired individual. This is sometimes referred to as paradoxical exhibition.

The main goal of seduction whether it is active under conscious or unconscious mechanisms is to impress the desired partner and display positive characteristics that are likely to be attractive, and to repress undesirable characteristics.

Non-verbal communication
Within the interactive seduction game, non-verbal communication is a prominent feature in accessing the desirable potential mate. The purpose of this communication is to reduce the interpersonal distance between the desired individuals.

Physiological features such as pupil dilation are a salient cue, expressing attraction. Leading on from this, eye contact is a very notable sign of attraction. Although there are cross cultural differences in whether eye contact is used or not, in Western Cultures, the duration of eye contact and the exchange between two individuals is important in the first stages of the biosocial model.

Another non-verbal cue in the process of seduction are facial expressions. Smiling is considered another prominent feature in seduction, as it signifies willingness to engage in a social interaction, and in the case of seduction, to participate in creating an intimate bond. These non-verbal behaviour become synchronised between the two individuals which can then lead to the last two stages of the biosocial model.

Paralingual features of seduction
Paralingual features are those associated with the voice, such as pitch, tone and rhythm. These features of verbal communication change in different stages of the seduction process. Studies have shown that when initiating an interaction with a female, the seductive characteristics of the voice will begin with slightly higher pitch and increased articulation in the first meeting. However, whilst seducing, the paralanguage will alter gradually. His voice will eventually become softer with lower pitch and modulated voice. These characteristics of the voice are akin to those adults use when speaking to children, in infant directed speech. This is vocal exhibition, which has been found mostly in males. The aim of modulating the voice is to attract the desired female and become intimate.

Use of Seduction in Sexual Relationships
It is well known that males and females both implement the strategy of seduction as a method of negotiating their sexual relationships. This can often involve manipulation of other individuals. This is primarily based on desire, normally physical, as well as attraction towards them. Popular phrases often used include; ‘the language of love is universal’. These phrases help to demonstrate the extensively pervasive and ubiquitous strategy use within love and relationships amongst humans. Individuals employing such strategies often do so subconsciously and will merely report the feelings and thoughts that they subjectively experienced and are colloquially comparable to ‘attraction’ or 'love'.

Research has indicated that seduction could substitute or equate to a form of collapsed or condensed courtship. Evolutionary psychology suggests that this form of sexual enticement can be used in order to cajole desired individuals to engage in sexual intercourse and ultimately reproduce. This behaviour is also aimed at persuading someone to develop a short-term or long-term sexual relationship with them. Males declare that they adopt the strategy of seduction statistically more frequently than females. From an evolutionary perspective this is due to females’ higher parental investment and the lack of guarantee of male parental investment. Females therefore need to be seduced more prior to engaging in sexual intercourse. Men more commonly wish to engage in more frequent short-term mating, which may require this strategy of seduction used to access the female for intercourse. However, this finding has been contradicted by non-verbal seduction results which indicate that females have more control within this area. Ultimately, both male and females have reported preferring seduction above all other strategies for making a potential partner agree to sexual intercourse.

Short Term Strategies
The dark triad is made up of three personality traits, psychopathology, neuroticism and Machiavellianism. This dark triad proposed by Paulhus and Williams (2002) has been connected to short term mating strategies and seduction predominantly in men. The three traits are exploitative in nature and are used for sexually coercive behaviours.

In existing literature, these three traits are considered maladaptive for the individual and society, however, these traits have been found to be adaptive in an exploitative strategy in short term mating. Machiavellianism, psychopathology and narcissism traits are adaptive for an unrestricted sociosexualtiy and promiscuous behaviours. These traits are not useful for long term mating strategies because they are negatively correlated with agreeableness, empathy and reciprocation which corresponds to marital conflict. They are associated with impulsivity, manipulative behaviours and lack of empathy. These personality traits would be useful in seducing a partner for a short term encounter. From an evolutionary perspective, this would have been particularly beneficial to males who want to increase their reproductive success, through seducing many women using these particular traits.

The triad of traits, ancestrally would not have been adaptive for women, this is because, females were less likely or less willing to engage in casual sex, because of the lack of certainty of resources to provide for her and her offspring. Therefore, these traits are seen more in males.

Additionally, there are other potential considerations of the implication of short-term strategies. Males cannot employ such strategies without there being willing females to engage in sexual intercourse within a short-term relationship with them. Therefore, benefits from engaging in multiple short-term mating's must also exist for females. These mating's enable females to practice and enhance their skills, specifically within attraction and seduction. Females are honing their mating skills. However, this willingness to make the first move and engage in a sexual relationship may be subtle.

Improving attraction and seduction skills can also help a female with acquiring a better or more desirable male according to the ‘Mate Switching Hypothesis’. Females may also be more equipped at deterring male partners from future infidelity, demonstrated by the ‘Mate Manipulation Hypothesis’. These hypotheses indicate the benefits for females of developing and expanding on their seduction skills within sexual relationships.

Rape and Seduction
Rape and seduction strategies have been investigated, looking at their similarities and differences. Some similarities shown would suggest that they are roughly the same in length and in both, the male was found to be the likely instigator. Physical strength attributed to the male, was reported the same for both seduction and rape. However, there are also some major differences. Greater aggression was found within a rape strategy, with this not mild, but substantial aggression. Furthermore, greater female resistance was ascribed to the women within a rape script, compared to a seduction script. Emotions reported were found to show differences, with more negative emotions reported within a rape strategy; specifically the victim reported showing fear with the instigator reporting anger. A significantly more negative outcome was reported for a rape strategy, with a mixed outcome reported for a seduction strategy. In addition males were described as more responsible for rape, with females described as more responsible for seduction. A rapist was reported as more likely to suffer with mental illness or social issues, for example drug abuse or addiction, and was also described as having a lower social status than a seducer. Overall, both rape and seduction strategies were reported as using manipulative tactics to gain a particular outcome.

Marketing
Seduction within marketing is seen as the relationship between the marketer and the customer that converts an initial resistance into compliance and willingness. The marketer seduces the consumer to change from one set of social agreements into another, often opposite, set of social agreements leading to satisfaction of at least one of the pair. Information is given, so as to have a desirable and predictable impact on a consumer’s decision process. Seduction differs from enlightenment, in that with enlightenment the information is given in order to allow the consumer to enable better decision making. The terms of the exchange are unambiguous.

There is debate as to how common seduction is used within marketing, with utility theory denying it would exist at all. Others believe in a sovereign customer, who is free to make their own decisions without being influenced by an outside agent.

Seduction can be split into two separate forms, confidence games (con-game) and play depending on the nature of the relationship developed between marketer and customer. In a confidence game, the unsustainability of the exchange is hidden from the consumer because their rewards of the exchange will not be what the consumer is expecting or desiring. The seducer defrauds the consumer by first gaining their confidence and exploiting certain characteristics. With play, the unsustainability of the exchange is not hidden from the consumer, the consumer plays along simply for the reward of playing, for instance an older child may still play along with believing in Santa Claus for the rewards. Within marketing, playing along with the seducer is seen as fundamental to the seduction of the consumer, with the consumer playing a role in the exchange. This is what makes seduction different to fraud, where the relationship is coercive in nature and the consumer has not shown any complicity.

Typology of ways to induce consumers to transact
Deighton and Grayson created a flowchart which asked five questions to determine the type of transaction.
 * 1) "Are the terms of the transaction unambiguous?" If unambiguous and coercive, this leads the transaction to be either "theft by force" or "theft by stealth". If unambiguous, yet fair, then that is "trade with mutual gain". If the terms are ambiguous, question 2 applies.
 * 2) "Does the consumer enter a new social consensus?" If not, then this transaction is known as "persuasion". If the consumer does, then this leads to question 3.
 * 3) "How broad-based is the new consensus?" If wide, the transaction is "socialization". If narrow, then question 4 applies.
 * 4) "Does the consumer collaborate in building the consensus?" If the consumer does not collaborate and gains are lost if the consensus fails, then this is known as "fraud". If the consumer does not collaborate and the gains are sustained if the consensus fails, then that is "entertainment". If the consumer does collaborate then this leads to question 5.
 * 5) "Are gains lost if the consensus fails?" If yes, then this is a "con game", if no, this is known as "play". Both con games and play are considered forms of seduction. Therefore, as long as the other questions are followed with the appropriate answer, it does not matter whether the gains are lost or not if the consensus fails as to whether the transaction is considered seduction.