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Pre-Industrial Agriculture & Impacts

Agriculture marked the first step for early humans to create permanent settlements, a significant transition from the tens of thousands of years of hunter-gatherer lifestyle. The development of permanent settlements that revolved around agriculture meant people could control their food supply. As a result, population size of these early settlements grew, and people were liberated to engage in activities other than the production of food. During this period, the settlers were able to make advances in culture, social structure and technology. Trade also helped boost prosperity, allowing civilizations in Egypt and Mesopotamia to develop.

The rise of agriculture also had influenced the landscape and environment. These include clearing fields and forests to make space for farmland, diverting rivers and other water sources, and creating terraces from mountainsides to expand agriculture from previously unfarmable land. The manipulation of the environment increased the efficiency of food production for small villages and towns, but there have been negative impacts of early agriculture. In the Fertile Crescent, the soil fertility has deteriorated over years of farming; salts from irrigation practices have slowly accumulated from years of irrigation, which inhibits plant growth. Salination of the soil continues to be an issue for the region even in the modern era.

Copán

The Mayan city of Copán is a prime example of a civilization that collapsed due to overpopulation and the rapid transformation of land for farming. At its peak, Copán hosted a rich culture with highly detailed statues and monuments to show off their wealth and power. To feed the city, the surrounding lands, mostly covered by forests, were converted to farmlands[4]. As prosperity grew, so too did the population. This led to a feedback loop of population growth and expanding agricultural fields. Less fertile lands such as swamps and hills were converted to farmlands, contributing to soil erosion and decreasing land fertility. Burial sites around the decline of Copán hinted of widespread malnutrition in the population, and diseases also became prevalent among and eventually reaching the social elites[4]. Between the 8th and9th centuries, Copán suffered a population crash to only a small fraction of its peak era[4]. The decline of Copán seemed to be typical throughout the Mayan civilization. It is possible that the collapse of the Mayan civilization was attributed to overpopulation and the infertility of the land due to rapid agricultural expansion in a similar fashion to the collapse of Copán, although this is still the subject of debate.

Easter Island

Easter Island, famous for its giant stone humanoid statues called Moai, is perhaps one of the most mysterious civilizations to have disappeared. Located in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, Easter Island once hosted a Polynesian civilization that developed in isolation[1]. By the time Europeans arrived on the island, much of the island was deforested and only short trees remained. There were also signs of a recent population crash. From pollen records, the island used to be covered in palm trees[1]. Some suggest that the deforestation wad due to overpopulation on the island. This would have two main consequences: 1) decreasing soil fertility due to lack of root anchorage that protected against erosion, and 2) the lack of lumber for building and repairing fishing vessels. Unable to neither farm nor fish to feed the population, the people on Easter Island would have suffered a food crisis, perhaps leading to an inevitable population crash.

Post-Industrial Agriculture & Impacts

Modern industrial farming originated around the same time of the industrial revolution in sometime between the mid 18th century and early 19th century. It is characterized by the use of heavy machinery, synthetic fertilizers, and low human capital. As a result, population started booming during this period and continues to increase today. In most developed countries today, the majority of food, widely available in supermarkets, is produced by industrial farming. This trend is currently spreading on a global scale.

One reason industrial agriculture became so successful is the use of fossil fuel. Fossil fuels originated with the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, often taking millions of years to develop. These hydrocarbon compounds are rich in energy and can be transformed into different compounds such as synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. By adding these synthetic fertilizers onto fields, they allow land that is unfavorable for agricultural growth to produce food. By using pesticides, farmers, can benefit from less crop damage from insects and weeds. Fossil fuels also power most modern farm machinery such as combines for harvesting crop, and with the growing shift towards urbanization, they also fuel the transportation of the harvests to supermarkets in the cities.

AIR POLLUTANT

While fossil fuel has propelled the development of modern civilization, it has come at a high cost to the environment. The burning of fossil fuel releases carbon dioxide, a major source of greenhouse gas. This is suggested to have accelerated global warming since the start of the industrial revolution, although scientists still debate the impacts of releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Nitrogen and sulphur oxides, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and other pollutants are also released. These contribute to environmental degradation such as acid rain, and health risks such as respiratory problems from smog.

Immediate effects of burning fossil fuel were seen during the Great Smog of December 1952 in London, England. The city was covered with a thick layer of smog that originated from air pollutants and particulates in coal plants. This was the worst air pollution recorded in Britain’s history; records report 4000 people died as a result of smog, although this number could be higher[12]. Following the smog, people took environmental protection as a health concern, introducing investments in environmental research and changes in government regulations. Among the responses taken was the Clean Air Act in 1956, which banned black smoke emissions[12].

There has been a recent increase in attention put towards the impacts of global warming. Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and Hurricane Sandy in 2012 are two of the most damaging hurricanes recorded in American history; experts estimate that Hurricanes Katrina and Sandy have caused $108 billion and $50 billion worth in damage respectively[8] Due to carbon dioxide emissions, the increase in global temperature allows the atmosphere to retain more moisture. This, in turn, would increase the severity of these hurricanes and other meteorological phenomenon in the future. Global warming also means that ice caps would melt faster than at natural rates. This is already happening in places like the Arctic, Antarctica and Greenland. A recent study published in the journal Science in 2012 reported that the “ice sheets are losing more than three times as much ice each year ... as they were in the 1990s”[3]. The melting of ice sheets would result in a rise in sea level, potentially flooding many coastal cities and displacing millions of people.

PESTICIDE

One of the main accredited start to the modern American environmental movement is Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, published in 1962. In the book, Carson argued that the use of pesticides, in particular DDT, has harmful consequences not only on the wildlife, but also on humans. Excessive and unregulated use of pesticides can potentially kill organisms living in the soil, such as bacteria and insects, which promote the growth of farm crops. In the case of DDT, the compound can work its way up the food chains from insects to the birds that eat these insects. Although concentration of DDT is generally low for organisms towards the bottom of food chains, it can quickly accumulate for organisms near to top of food chains through biomagnification. For some bird species, biomagnification of DDT causes the thinning of eggshells, which impairs the baby birds’ ability to develop properly[10]. The title of the book is meant to represent a spring season without birds singing because pesticides and other human-caused pollution destroyed the birds’ ability to survive in its natural ecosystem. Following the book release, the public started to add pressure on the government to make reforms on environmental protection, one of which is the banning of DDT in pesticides.

We still haven’t become mature enough to think of ourselves as only a tiny part of a vast and incredible universe. Man’s attitude towards nature is today critically importantly simply because we have now acquired a fateful power to alter and destroy nature. Now, I truly believe, that we in this generation, must come to terms with nature, and I think we’re challenged as mankind has never been challenged before to prove our maturity and our mastery, not of nature, but of ourselves. – Rachel Carson, Silent Spring of Rachel Carson, 1963[7]

FERTILIZER

In the 60s and 70s, Lake Erie became much polluted due to the unregulated agricultural, industrial and residential release of organic phosphorus, nitrogen, and other chemicals[11]. Although unintentional released, these nutrients leeched their way into the lake, setting off a massive influx of algae growth, or algal bloom. Despite producing oxygen from photosynthesis, algal bloom also kill plant life at the bottom of the lakebed by shading the sunlight. In addition, the bacterial decomposition of algal bloom consumes oxygen in the process, making a positive feedback system of reducing the dissolved oxygen levels in the lake, and killing aquatic life in the process.

The eutrophication of Lake Erie alarmed residents around the lake as well as local officials. Fisheries operating on the lake were particularly impacted by the rapid die-off of aquatic life. The drop in water quality and aquatic life led to people and the government making a conscious effort to reduce the eutrophication of the lake. In 1972, Canada and United States signed the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement to protect the great lakes for future generations[6]. These measures included reducing or removing phosphate from detergents, reducing runoff from farms, and upgrading urban sewer systems[6].

Eutrophication is not limited to Lake Erie. Satellite photos along the coastal line of the Gulf of Mexico shows a dead zone created by algal bloom roughly around 6000 to 7000 square miles[5]. This is mainly due to nitrate runoffs from agricultural activities around the American Midwest, which drains into the Mississippi River and, ultimately, the Gulf of Mexico. The National Science and Technology Counsel report that in order to bring nitrogen levels back to normal, the flow of nitrogen into the Gulf has to decrease by 40%[5]. The Gulf of Mexico is a major source of income for local fisheries, supplying 72% of shrimp, 66% of oyster, and 16% of commercial fish in America[2]. Expanding the dead zone in the Gulf would almost certainly send shocks to both local economies as well as prices for these seafood. Drinking water would also be impaired by this runoff, increasing the risk of disease as well as the cost of purifying water.

PERMACULTURE

Permaculture is the practice of designing an agricultural system based on sustainability and self-maintenance. The key is to design the land so that the natural ecosystem of plants and animals take the least amount of energy and human capital while maximizing food yield. For example, a permaculture garden may include edible plants that cycle nutrients and attract helpful wildlife. This type of agriculture integrates traditional farming with the setup of a natural landscape. One application of permaculture can be seen in what is known as agroforestry. Agroforestry is the integrated combination of agriculture, ecology, and forestry. It takes advantage of the different levels of vegetational production, therefore increasing the amount of food production on a given set of land.

Application of permaculture is slowly gaining momentum. In light recent climate changes and global food shortages, the idea of minimizing human labor and energy input while maximizing yield is attracting people’s attention. In Haiti, where deforestation has worsened the effects of soil erosion, permaculture presents a viable solution to solving the country’s food shortages as well as improving soil structure. The success of permaculture can be seen in Cuba, where the principles of permaculture were applied in the early 90s to avoid a famine crisis[9]

Annotated Bibliography

1.	BBC - Science & Nature - Horizon - The Mystery of Easter Island. (2003, January 9). BBC. Retrieved February 16, 2013, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2003/easterisland.shtml This source talks about the mysterious disappearance of the Easter Island civilization. I used this source to show evidence for deforestation.

2.	Bruckner, M. (n.d.). The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone. SERC. Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/topics/deadzone/index.html This source talks about the dead zone in the Gulf coast. I used this source to show importance of the Gulf coast fishery.

3.	Cole, S., Buis, A., & Harward, E. (2012, November 29). NASA - Ice Sheet Loss at Both Poles Increasing, Major Study Finds. NASA. Retrieved February 14, 2013, from http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2012/nov/HQ_12-409_Ice_Sheet_Sea_level.html This source talks about the melting of ice sheets in both polls. I used this source to show the rate of melting of ice.

4.	Durrani, N. (2008, July 7). Copan World Archaeology. World Archaeology Digs, Discoveries, Travel, Exploration. Retrieved February 16, 2013, from http://www.world-archaeology.com/features/copan/ This source described the city of Copan and its collapse. I used this source to describe the social and environmental impact of Copan’s overpopulation.

5.	Eutrophication in the Gulf of Mexico: How Midwestern farming practices are creating a Dead Zone. (2012, March 11). Dartmouth Undergraduate Journal of Science. Retrieved February 18, 2013, from http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/winter-2012/eutrophication-in-the-gulf-of-mexico-how-midwestern-farming-practices-are-creating-a-%E2%80%98dead-zone%E2%80%99#.USbDfKXCaSo This source talks about the eutrophication of the Gulf of Mexico. I used this source to show the extent of the dead zone and the reduction of nitrogen needed to revert to normal.

6.	Lake Erie | Great Lakes | US EPA. (2012, February 7). US Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved February 22, 2013, from http://www.epa.gov/lakeerie/primer.html This source talks about the Lake Erie eutrophication. I used this source to show the Canadian and American governments’ attempts to remediate the eutrophication.

7.	York Times. (n.d.). In Memoriam - Rachel Carson. The Life and Legacy of Rachel Carson. Retrieved February 10, 2013, from http://www.rachelcarson.org/memoriamRC.aspx#.USGLZaXCaSo This source is a quote from Rachel Carson. I used this source to emphasize environmental protection.

8.	Porter, D. (2013, February 13). Hurricane Sandy Was Second-Costliest In U.S. History, Report Shows. Huffington Post. Retrieved February 14, 2013, from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/02/12/hurricane-sandy-second-costliest_n_2669686.html This source compares Hurricanes Sandy and Katrina to other hurricanes in American history. I used this source to report the damages caused by these hurricanes.

9.	Schoepke, E. (2010, January 14). Permaculture Relief Corps Forming For Haiti Earthquake Response? Permaculture Forums, Permaculture Courses, Permaculture Information & News. Permaculture Forums, Permaculture Courses, Permaculture Information & News. Retrieved February 10, 2013, from http://permaculturenews.org/2010/01/14/permaculture-relief-corps-forming-for-haiti-earthquake-response/ This source talks about the application of permaculture in Haiti. I used this source to show the viability of permaculture in a modern society.

10.	Silent Spring Summary | NRDC. (1997, April 16). Natural Resources Defense Council. Retrieved February 10, 2013, from http://www.nrdc.org/health/pesticides/hcarson.asp This source talks about Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring and her fight against unregulated pesticide use. I used this source to show the effects of DDT on bird eggshells.

11.	Suzuki, D. T. (Director). (1984). The Great Lakes [Documentary]. Canada: Canadian Broadcasting Corp, from http://rc-archives.cbc.ca/environment/pollution/topics/1390/. This source talks about the Lake Erie eutrophication. I used this source to show the causes of eutrophication.

12.	The Great Smog of 1952 - Met Office Education. (n.d.). Weather and climate change - Met Office. Retrieved February 11, 2013, from http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/education/teens/case-studies/great-smog This source talks about the Great Smog of 1952 and its consequences. I used this source to show the deaths as a result of this event.