User:Jgreenenvi/Phragmites

Copied from Phragmites

Addition to the ecosystems services part

Others have argued that the ecosystem services lost as a result of invasion outweigh the benefits gained and managers need to be responsive to invasion control (Martin and Blossey 2009).

Invasivity and control[edit]
Some Phragmites, when introduced by accident or intent, spread rapidly. In the United States, prior to 1910, only a few areas in the Northeast contained non-native haplotypes of Phragmites australis. However, by 1960 non-native haplotypes were found in samples taken from coast to coast. Today, in some places like Michigan, Phragmites australis (haplotype M) has become the dominant haplotype. The problem is invasive non-native Phragmites australis quickly spread through marshes and wetland areas. They replace native plants, deny fish and wildlife nutrients and space; block access to the water for swimming, fishing and other recreation endeavors; spoil shoreline views; and pose a fire hazard.

Phragmites can drive out competing vegetation in two ways. Their sheer height and density can deprive other plants of sunlight and the chemicals they produce when decaying reduce the germination of competing seeds.

Recognizing the non-native form of Phragmites early in its invasion increases the opportunity for successful eradication dramatically. Once it has become established, removal by hand is nearly impossible. The seeds or rhizomes can quickly lead to a new dense stand. Non-native Phragmites australis in the United States reproduces sexually more frequently than native P. australis (Kettenring and Mock 2012). Therefore, the most successful Phragmites control treatments to date have centered around the application of an aquatic herbicide followed by burning of the roots and stalks to prevent regrowth, which can lead to noticeable improvement in pond conditions for indigenous species and migratory birds. It is important to select the proper herbicide for the location. Chemical treatment is by far the most utilized method in North America (https://www.greatlakesphragmites.net/management/techniques/). The two most common active ingredients in herbicides for Phragmites control are glyphosate and imazapyr (Hazelton et al. 2014). Further, even the proper herbicide can lead to unintended consequences since a large amount of decaying dead plant material can depress oxygen levels in the water and kill all the fish in a pond or small lake. Some success has also been obtained using goats to graze on Phragmites, controlled burns, and native wild rice crops. Biological controls have been suggested to be the most likely control method to succeed and biocontrols have been approved for introduction in North America (Blossey et al 2020). Unfortunately, biocontrols may destroy the native subspecies population as well (Cronin et al 2016). When cutting under water, cutting and then flooding, or burning and then flooding, it is important that the entire phragmites stand is completely submerged so that the plants cannot obtain oxygen (https://www.greatlakesphragmites.net/management/techniques/).

'''Programs? Funding? Collaborations?'''