User:Jkb44/Legacy pollution

Legacy pollution or legacy pollutants are persistent materials in the environment that were created through a polluting industry or process that have polluting effects after the process has finished. Frequently these include persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals or other chemicals residual in the environment long after the industrial or extraction processes that produced them. Often these are chemicals produced by industry and polluted before there was widespread awareness of the toxic effects of the pollutants, and subsequently regulated or banned. Notable legacy pollutants include mercury, PCBs, Dioxins, and other chemicals that have widespread health and environmental effects. Sites for legacy pollutants include mining sites, industrial parks, waterways contaminated by industry, and other dump sites.

These chemicals often have an outsized impact in countries' jurisdictions with little or no environmental monitoring or regulation—because the chemicals were often produced in new jurisdictions after they were banned in more heavily regulated jurisdictions. Often in these countries, there is a lack of capacity in environmental regulatory, health, and civic infrastructure to address the impact of the pollutants.

The impact of legacy pollutants can be visible many years after the initial polluting process, and require environmental remediation. Grassroots communities and environmental defender frequently advocate for the responsibility of industry and states through environmental justice action and advocacy for the recognition of human rights, such as the right to a healthy environment.

Brownfields
This section is an excerpt from Brownfield land.

Brownfield is land that is abandoned or underutilized due to pollution from industrial use. The specific definition of brownfield land varies and is decided by policymakers and/or land developers within different countries. The main difference in definitions of whether a piece of land is considered a brownfield or not depends on the presence or absence of pollution. Overall, brownfield land is a site previously developed for industrial or commercial purposes and thus requires further development before reuse. Many contaminated post-industrial brownfield sites sit unused because the cleaning costs may be more than the land is worth after redevelopment. Previously unknown underground wastes can increase the cost of study and clean-up. Depending on the contaminants and damage present adaptive re-use and disposal of a brownfield can require advanced and specialized appraisal analysis techniques.

Mine tailings
This section is an excerpt from Tailings.

In mining, tailings or tails are the materials left over after the process of separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction (gangue) of an ore. Tailings are different from overburden, which is the waste rock or other material that overlies an ore or mineral body and is displaced during mining without being processed. Tailings are likely to be dangerous sources of toxic chemicals such as heavy metals, sulfides and radioactive content. These chemicals are especially dangerous when stored in water in ponds behind tailings dams. These ponds are also vulnerable to major breaches or leaks from the dams, causing environmental disasters, such as the Mount Polley disaster in British Columbia. Because of these and other environmental concerns such as groundwater leakage, toxic emissions and bird death, tailing piles and ponds have received more scrutiny, especially in first-world countries, but the first UN-level standard for tailing management was only established in 2020.

Abandoned mines
This section is an excerpt from Abandoned mine.

An abandoned mine refers to a former mining or quarrying operation that is no longer in use and has no responsible entity to finance the cost of remediation and/or restoration of the mine feature or site. Such mines are typically left unattended and may pose safety hazards or cause environmental damage without proper maintenance. The term incorporates all types of old mines, including underground shaft mines and drift mines, and surface mines, including quarries and placer mining. Typically, the cost of addressing the mine's hazards is borne by the public/taxpayers/the government.

An abandoned mine may be a hazard to health, safety or environment.

Abandoned gas wells
This section is an excerpt from Orphan wells.

Orphan, orphaned, or abandoned wells are oil or gas wells that have been abandoned by fossil fuel extraction industries. These wells may have been deactivated because of economic viability, failure to transfer ownerships (especially at the bankruptcy of companies), or neglect and thus no longer have legal owners responsible for their care. Decommissioning wells effectively can be expensive, costing millions of dollars, and economic incentives for businesses generally encourage abandonment. This process leaves the wells the burden of government agencies or landowners when a business entity can no longer be held responsible. As climate change mitigation reduces demand and usage of oil and gas, it's expected that more wells will be abandoned as stranded assets.

Orphan wells are a potent contributor of greenhouse gas emissions, such as methane emissions, causing climate change. Much of this leakage can be attributed to broken plugs, or failure to plug properly. A 2020 estimate of US abandoned wells alone was that methane emissions released from abandoned wells produced greenhouse gas impacts equivalent to 3 weeks of US oil consumption each year. The scale of leaking abandoned wells is well understood in the US and Canada because of public data and regulations; however, a Reuters investigation in 2020 could not find good estimates for Russia, Saudi Arabia, and China—the next biggest oil and gas producers. However, they estimate there are 29 million abandoned wells internationally. Abandoned wells also have the potential to contaminate land, air, and water around wells, potentially harming ecosystems, wildlife, livestock, and humans. For example, many wells in the United States are situated on farmland, and if not maintained could contaminate important sources of soil and groundwater with toxic contaminants.

Remediation
Due to the environmental consequences of human industrial actions, pollution can be long-lasting and remain in an ecosystem. With industrialization and its consequences, methods, and technology for repairing the damage and detoxifying the system has been developed.  (CITATION NEEDED)  Human industrial activities can often lead to long-lasting pollutants in ecosystems. With industrialization and its consequences, technology has been developed to repair and detoxify the ecosystem. Some methods of remediation include natural bioremediation techniques that use plants and or microorganisms as well as Physical techniques like soil washing, vitrification, electrokinetic remediation, and permeable barrier systems are used to cleanse the ecosystem as well. Chemical remediation is another common method of detoxification in the ecosystem using methods like stabilization/solidification, precipitation, and ion-exchange resin.

Bioremediation and Legacy Pollutants

The process of bioremediation relies on the process of employing genetically engineered and modified organisms to remove pollutants from land. Microorganisms are typically used in the process of removing heavy metals from contaminated sources. Common sources of heavy metal contamination from human actions includes cadmium, zinc, copper, nickel, and lead. Microbes are employed to convert harmful heavy metals into non-toxic versions. The process of using microbes is often considered one of the safest, most effective, and convenient methods of remediation due to the natural ability of native microbes to cleanse toxic products.

Challenges and Strategies Managing Non-Point Source Pollution and "Hot Spots"

The management of non-point source pollution and identification of "hot spots" are pivotal in addressing legacy pollution. Tackling these issues requires a comprehensive understanding of pollution sources and the implementation of targeted management practices. Innovative strategies, such as the application of technology for monitoring and remediation, play a crucial role in mitigating the impacts of legacy pollutants on ecosystems and human health​.

Social Impacts
Environmental Justice and Legacy Pollution

Legacy pollution disproportionately affects marginalized communities, including people of color, Indigenous populations, and low-income areas. Studies show that these communities are more likely to live near polluted sites and face higher health and safety risks. An environmental justice approach is critical, emphasizing the importance of equitable cleanup efforts and recognizing the right to a healthy environment for all individuals​​.

Social Impacts in Canada
Giant Mine, Northwest Territories, Canada.

The Giant Mine was a large gold mine that was predominately active from 1949 to 1999. During this period, approximately 20,000 tonnes of arsenic was released at the site. The mine was owned by the company Royal Oak Mines until 1999. The mine went bankrupt and ownership was transferred to the federal and territorial governments. In the process of operations, ore roasting is a commonly used practice for gold recovery. The Giant Mine used ore Roasting as a method of gold recovery primarily, and with this method of use came the release of large amounts of arsenic. Ore roasting is impactful to toxicity levels of arsenic, increases the solubility, and increases its rate of Bioaccessibility. Studies have shown that underground chambers at the site contain approximately 237,000 tonnes of arsenic trioxide dust. This has led to arsenic concentrations exceeding 4000 parts per million (ppm) without accounting for other sources of arsenic sources and sinks that are present in the area that further contaminate the region. Local Metis populations have given statements regarding the former mine site stating that their land, fish, and water are all contaminated from legacy pollution caused by the site. a representative of the community stated that cancer rates in his community have risen due to the legacy pollution still impacting the local community.

Athabasca River, Alberta, Canada.

With the development and expansion of oil sand operations in the region of the Athabasca River, concerns have been raised regarding higher cancer rates in local residents due to pollutants from tailing ponds. Evidence of mercury, nickel, thallium, and all 13 priority pollutants were discovered in nearby area samples throughout various seasons in the year varying in concentration. First Nations populations that are reliant on local foods are directly exposed to Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) as a result of oil sands operations. Fish from the area are the most significant contributors to BaP exposure in the communities, leading to BaP intake levels that rival on average nine cigarettes a day. Levels are anticipated to grow along with industrial expansion in the region.

Case Studies: Giant Mine and Athabasca River

The Giant Mine in Canada's Northwest Territories and the Athabasca River in Alberta serve as stark reminders of the social and environmental impacts of legacy pollution. The Giant Mine, with its history of arsenic pollution, and the Athabasca River, affected by oil sand operations, illustrate the dire consequences of industrial activities on local communities, particularly on Indigenous populations. These case studies underscore the urgency of cleanup efforts and the need for ongoing vigilance to protect human health and the environment​​.

Social Impacts Globally
Impact of DDT Use

DDT was a popular pesticide from the 1960s to the 1980s that was used intensely to kill mosquitos. The United States banned the pesticide in 1972, largely in part because of a movement started by Rachel Carson and the book Silent Spring. The book, published in 1962, drastically changed how scientists conducted their research and increased focus on the impacts of humans on the environment. The persistent usage of DDT led to resistance by many of the pests it was actively supposed to kill.

Lead Contamination in Flint, Michigan, USA
Flint Water Crisis

In 2014, the city of Flint, Michigan, switched its water supply source to the Flint River without adequate treatment for corrosion control, leading to the leaching of lead from aging pipes into the water system. This exposed over 100,000 residents to high levels of lead, resulting in widespread lead poisoning. The immediate health impacts included skin lesions, hair loss, high levels of lead in the blood, and other serious health problems. Children were especially affected, facing potential long-term neurological damage. The crisis highlighted issues of environmental justice and regulatory failures, sparking national discussions on water quality and infrastructure management '''(Pietrangelo & Watson, 2020). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342624299_Stress_A_Psychological_Problem_having_Negative_Influences_on_Health_and_Well-being '''

Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster, Ukraine
Chernobyl Accident, 1986

The Chernobyl disaster occurred on April 26, 1986, at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine. An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive isotopes into the atmosphere, which spread over much of Europe. The immediate aftermath involved acute radiation sickness and deaths among plant workers and emergency responders. Long-term health effects, including thyroid cancer, leukemia, and other cancers, have been observed in thousands of individuals exposed to radiation. The disaster also led to the permanent displacement of over 300,000 people from their homes, creating profound social and psychological impacts and a legacy of health and economic hardships.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy, India
Bhopal Disaster, 1984

On the night of December 2nd to 3rd, 1984, a pesticide plant owned by Union Carbide in Bhopal, India, released 42 tons of methyl isocyanate gas. Exposure to the gas killed thousands immediately, and many more succumbed to related illnesses in the following weeks. Survivors suffer from chronic respiratory problems, eye irritations, and skin diseases. The incident has also resulted in genetic disorders and birth defects in subsequent generations. The social fallout includes ongoing litigation for fair compensation, lack of adequate medical facilities for the affected, and persistent economic stagnation in the community.

E-waste in Guiyu, China
Guiyu, Electronic Waste Capital

Guiyu in Guangdong Province, China, has been a major center for electronic waste recycling. For decades, improper handling and disposal of e-waste have led to severe environmental contamination by heavy metals such as lead and mercury and chemicals from plastics and other composites. Residents, including children, have shown elevated levels of toxic substances in their blood, leading to health issues such as neurological damage, digestive problems, and skin diseases. The town’s economy is heavily reliant on the e-waste industry, complicating efforts to address the environmental and health crises without worsening economic conditions '''(Puckett et al., 2002). https://www.sciepub.com/reference/160256 '''

International policy
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is one of the main international mechanisms for supporting the elimination of legacy persistent organic pollutants such as PCBs.

Global Efforts Against Legacy Pollution

Comparing approaches to managing legacy pollution across different countries highlights the variety of strategies employed worldwide. While some nations have advanced regulatory frameworks and technologies for pollution control, others struggle due to limited resources and infrastructure. International cooperation, such as through the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, is essential for the global elimination of legacy pollutants and the sharing of best practices​​​ ​​​.

Recent Efforts in Legislation
Bipartisan Infrastructure Law in the U.S.

The Bipartisan Infrastructure Law in the U.S., signed by President Joe Biden, is an investment in the country. It allocates funds to multifaceted infrastructure needs and will directly invest in communities focusing on environmental justice, climate change, and economic growth.

In a historic move to tackle legacy pollution, the Biden Administration's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law allocates $16 billion towards the cleanup of abandoned mine lands and orphaned oil and gas wells. This funding represents the largest investment in addressing legacy pollution in American history, aiming to mitigate environmental hazards, protect public health, and revitalize affected communities​.

By aiding in legacy pollution remediation, the law will greatly improve the disparities among communities, decreasing the social impacts. With one in four Black and Hispanic Americans living within 3 miles of a superfund site, the law will deliver investments to clean those superfund sites up and reclaim the land. Creating jobs and addressing legacy pollution, the Bipartison infrastructure law will remediate environmental harm and advance overdue environmental justice.

Recent Efforts

Recent efforts within the U.S. on remediation of superfund sites can be seen across the nation. In 2023, the EPA deleted four sites from the National Priorities List, allowing for further development of the remediated land due to the completion of the clean-up.