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 * Riff, Michael, The Face of Survival: Jewish Life in Eastern Europe Past and Present with personal memoirs by Hugo Gryn, Stephen Roth, Ben Helfgott and Hermy Jankel; epilogue by Rabbi Moses Rosen. Valentine Mitchell, London, 1992, ISBN 0853032203.

69 Rom between the wars

Treaty of Dec 1919 granted citizenship to all "Jews inhabiting any Romanian territory who do not possess another nationality". Minority tights on non-Romanian speech even in court; schools in districts where the numbers merited; right to schools and other cultural institutions at their own expense.

Territorial gains ==> more Jews. Liberal Ion Bratlianu complained to Woodrow Wilson about the effects particularly in the professions.

70 Still, his party initially benevolent, and no immediate post-war violence. Soviet Jewish refugees settled in Bessarabia. Some support for Jewish education. But many left stateless, couldn't meet the documentation requirements to prove residency, esp. in ex A-H regions. (Some bribery of local officials for citizenship.)

Antisemitism among students. 1922: universities closed for a while. 1926 a Jew seeking admission to U. Of Cernauti was murdered by a Rom student.

Worst disturbance: 1927, Oradea Mare, Rom students (from Buc and Iasi) came to assert Rom character of this area that lacked Rom majority. Rioted against Magyars, Jews. 2 killed, many wounded, vandalism included 2 synagogues. Similarly, same people, after in Cluj and other towns. Jews identifies, with Mag & Ger, as "ethnic oppressors". Gov't took some action, probably due to foreign pressure.

Similarly in Bessarabia after abortive pro-Sov coup, Jews presumed Bolshevik and Russian.

No anti-Jewish legislation (as in Poland).

71 Much worse in 1930s. Iron Guard, Depression, Nazi influence. Traditional conservatives outflanked. After 1933, German minority identified w/ Nazism. Economics more a factor for most at that time than antisemit, esp. Bessarabia, already lacking its traditional Russian markets.

1934: law requiring 80% "Romanian" workforces. Jews without citizenship hurt.

1937: Octavian Goga, Alexandru Coza, both quite antisemit, come into power, poss with the intention of discrediting them "little comfort to the Jews". Lasted only 2 months.

Program: Jews excluded from economy, higher ed. All Jews who entered post-treaty expelled. Newspapers, libraries closed, prof. assocs to kick out Jews, etc. Numerus clausus.

72 Royal coup, though, introduced some of these measures because of Carol's need to prove himself to the Right. 270,000 Jews lost citizenship. Threats of expulsion of foreign Jews (not carried out). After loss of Bessarabia, N. Bucovina to USSR under Hitler-Stalin pact, most Jews deprived of basic rights. Also, Jews defined as a race, prohibited intermarriage, completely destroyed the emancipation of Rom Jewry.

None of this placated the Right. Sept 1940 Antonescu, Iron Guard

73 Property confiscated, shops boycotted,

85 pogrom in Bucharest Jan 1941 (just before downfall of Iron Guard). Antonescu akin to Horthy as partial protector. Bucovina, Bessarabia: many killed or expelled to be killed in Ukraine. Still 57% of prewar Jewish population survived.

Most diverse Jewish pop in E. Central Eur.

Union of Romanian Jews, UER, majority of Jews of the Regat, saw Jews as an ethnic minority. First supported Liberals, later Socialists, no separate party. Zionism powerful in new territories, but split into factions. Also, Bundists in Bessarabia, folkist nationalists in Bucovina, Agudists and Hasids in Transylvania.

86 Rom intolerance v. A-H tolerance (& German culture) strengthened Zionism in former A-H territories. 1928: Jewish national club in parliament, 1931 Jewish Party. 67,000 votes, 5 seats in 1932, but strength cut in half in less that a year. Support almost entirely from new territories. Jews more inclined to cast their lot with Left foes of antisemitism. 1936: UER & Zionists unite in Central Council of Romanian Jews "with the dual aim of combatting antisemitism and preparing for emigration." 1938 agreement that 50,000 could leave each year, so Rom became major source of illegal emigration to Palestine.

87 Poland "...the epicentre of the Jewish predicament in East Central Europe, if not the whole world..." Over 3.1 million Jews (by religion, 1931). about 10% of population. Largest Jw minority in the world; outnumbered in Poland by Ukrainians, followed by Belarusians, Germans, but lacking a "territorial base". Polish cities 25-50% Jewish. About 23% of Polish Jews were in the countryside. Jw pop of E. Galicia, Kresy, rather rural. By 1931, more in industry (esp. clothing 1/2 and food 1/4) than commerce, and as a group becoming poorer, but still disproportionately many in commerce and professions. Also craftsmen: "shoemakers, upholsterers, tailors, joiners, plumbers" working for themselves or for other Jews.

88 3/4 of the Jewish by religion also said Jewish by nationality. The rest: either assimilated, or ultra-Orthodox/Hasidic who rejected the concept of Jewish nationality. In Galicia, 50% of Jews said Polish nationality. 80% Yiddish as mother tongue, lower in Galicia.

During WWI, Germans recognized Jews as a minority nationality, took advantage of their support. Jewish school systems: "a lot of wrangling" about their character. Revival of newspapers. Politics: Zionists, folkists, Agudat Israel (Aguda): Orthodox party, founded Germany 1912, Halakhah

89 Tempered by antisemit officers. Jews and Poles both agreed w/ 1916 Ger proposal of an independent Poland (unspecified borders), but Ger "hesitation to let the Poles exercise their right of national self-determination" + Russian Rev + territory given to Ukraine, etc., began to move the matter into the hands of the Western Allies Dmowski "Polish National Committee" in Switz, then Paris, de facto rep of Poland to west, antisemit. Attempts from US, UK for Polish-Jewish conference failed. Pianist Paderewski (associated w/ Nat. Committee) and leaders of American Jewish Committee including Louis Marshall tried, failed 1918 in NYC to broker a deal of Jewish support for Pol territorial ambitions (a la Cz)...

90 ...in support for equality, rights, but Dmowski not interested. Paderewski's proposal so watered down it fell between stools. Dec 1918, Zionists established a "Provisional Jewish Council". Generally not supported by Aguda, Folkists, Bund (who wanted socialist revolution). Jan 1919 elections: Provisional Jewish Council wins 6 seats in Constituent Assembly, other Jews 5, all of whom agreed on the point of recognition as a national group.

91 The Sejm granted autonomy only to local religious communes: another wedge between Orthodox and others. Many minorities, much conflict. Anti-Jewish violence in Lvov after capture by Pol troops 22 Nov 1919, Pol commander accused the local Jews of treason, at least 72 Jews killed, 300 injured. Similarly at Pinsk April 5, 1919: 35 at a Zionist mtg killed by firing squad. American Joint Distribution Committee managed to intervene with Warsaw. Other "outrages" at Lublin, Lida, Wilno.

92 Minorities Treaty (June 1919) generally viewed as a breach of sovereignty. Anti-USSR offensive: further anti-Jewish violence, esp Nat Dem troops of Haller and Ukr forces of Semyon Petlyura and Balak-Balakhovitch. USSR counter-offensive. Provisional Rev Committee included several Jews, so Jews further discredited. Pogrom-like incidents during Pol retreat (Minsk, Siedlce, Lok&oacute;w, Wt&oacute;dawa, Bialystok); summary executions at the front for alleged spying.

93 Dec 1919: Sunday made a compulsory day of rest (mostly evaded by bribery). Dec 1919: Paderewski gov't falls. Leopold Skulski gov't dominated by Gen'l J&oacute;zef Pitsudski. "Bridge to Jewish leadership" to improve relations with Allies. Difficult because no united Jw leadership. March 1920: Jewish Interparty Committee; not much accomplished except a promise to put an end to antisemitic violence. Later gov't of Wladyslaw Grabski "sincerely interested in coming to a working arrangement". Council for Jewish Questions. However, gov't fell again. Wincenty Witos openly hostile to Jews. Defence Minister gave, but could not enforce, orders to Army to stop attacking Jews.

94 During defense of Warsaw (directed by Haller), Jews separated from other soldiers, confined to barracks, guarded. After Soviets repelled, Gen'l Sosnowski as Defense minister had Jewish soldiers and officers arrested, guarded by antisemitic soldiers form Western Poland. Eventual calm after the military situation eased. Jewish soldiers and officers freed, although some died in a suspicious railway accident. 1923: numerus clausus formally fails, but still hard for Jews to get into Univ. Pitsudski coup of 1925 generally welcomed by Jews:

95 at least an abssence of active, official antisemitism. Popular hatred of Jews, little room for change.

BUT a flowering of secular Jewish cultural life. Yiddish. Poland had united the Jewries of Congress Poland and Galicia with those of the Eastern borderlands. Important newspapers Haynt and Moment in Warsaw. Yiddish theater flourished, ditto literature. Notable writers: Y.Y. Trunk (1887–1957), Olize Varshavsky (1898–1944), I.J. Singer (1893–1944) and of course his younger brother Isaac Bashevis Singer (b.1904) 1921: Central Jewish School Organization (Tsisho by its Yiddish initials). Wrangles over curric. 1934-35: 15,000 students, independently funded primary & secondary. Yiddish. Diaspora-oriented secular Jewish culture.

96 Tsisho mostly in the Kresy, none in Galicia: assimilation or Orthodoxy, few secular Yiddishists. Secular: why not educate in the majority language? Tarbut (Heb. "culture") schools, moderate Zionists, Hebrew the language of instruction except Pol lang & hist. Mid-1930s 37,000 students. Other Zionist schools: Yavne (Mizrahi), Braude secondary, Schul-kit right wing Poale Zion, all mostly in the Kresy Aguda: Khoryev for boys, Beys Jakov for girls, together 110,000 students in 1934-35 60% of Jews in state schools.

97 Depression, particularly intense. After Pitsudski's death (May 1935), antisemitism could find a political outlet. Polish Catholic Church pushed Jewish emigration. Madagascar plan 1936. Intervened on Zionist behalf w/ British. Only socialists (PPS) not favoring antisemitic policy. Nat Dems modeled on Nazi laws. Boycotts. Pogroms.

98 By the late 1930s, 1 in 3 Pol Jewish families relied on outside assistance (mainly the "Joint") Growth of Revisionist Zionism, Socialist Zionism, Bund, secular left including illegal CP, at expense of General Zionists. & then of course came the Germans.

101 Even post-WWII, pogroms. 42 killed at Kielce. Most Jews either went to Israel or became actively Communists.

102 Paul Lendvai: ''Jews were now prime ministers and secretary generals, ministers, and police chiefs in the same countries where their fathers and relatives had been barely tolerated aliens and where only a few years earlier they had been deported or killed amid the general indifference of the population. The people now hated and despised them even more intensely than they had their ancestors.''

103 Stalinist anti-Zionism as a vehicle for antisemitism; brought down Slansky in Poland, Rajk in Hungary, Pauker in Romania, all Stalinists themselves.