User:Jnestorius/Bologna: A Time Honoured University

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ON June 12th the Bologna University celebrated the 800th anniversary of its foundation. Bologna might, with justice, go back much further into antiquity, for it was in 425 that Theodosius II erected the law school in this city which subsequently became so famous. It was not, however, till after 1300 that the University attained very large proportions; at this time she numbered about 10,000 students, who thronged to her halls from all parts of the world, but especially from Germany, Spain and Hungary.

The peculiarity which most interests us in the history of Bologna was the remarkable prominence which it gave to women-professors. In this particular the other Italian universities were equally liberal, for, we believe, there has never been a. time in Italy when the advantages of learning were considered to be a purely masculine privilege. In the recent law, which in 1877 regulated the government of the ﬁfteen universities of the Kingdom, the words occurred “women can be matriculated either as regular or special students.” but this only stated an accepted fact, not a new regulation, and merely changed what had been a privilege accorded by local corporations into an explicit law of the realm, sanctioned by a royal decree. Many universities therefore, Padua, Ferrara, Pisa, had ladies who were learned doctors and able professors on their rolls, but in none have women attained so honoured a place as in Bologna, and this University must therefore be regarded with special affection and reverence by women.

The records of Bologna tell us that Irnerius, who was elected to the professor’s chair in the twelfth century, through the inﬂuence of the celebrated Countess Matilda, and attracted the attention of Europe by his eloquence and erudition, reformed the whole school. He marked out the course to be pursued by his pupils and successors, invented the degrees of bachelor and doctor, designed the cap and gown that were their insignia, and allowed no distinction of sex in his scheme. If women had the courage, the ability, and the desire to become jurisconsults, the great law reformer saw no reason why they should not, “but they must go through the same training as men, six years for canon law, eight for civil law, and must submit to the two necessary tests, the public and private examinations.” Many women accepted thee conditions.

The names of these eminent women form a long list in the department of Law, for which the University of Bologna has always been famous. We ﬁnd the names of ﬁve ladies pre-eminent as jurisconsults. Francesco Accorso, or Accursius, who was Professor of Law at Bologna, at the end of the twelfth century had a daughter whose name was (this may have been an honorary title meaning learned), who read lectures on the same science at that University. was another lecturer on Civil Law. She and her sister, by name, were the daughters of Joannes Andrea, who after being 45 years a Professor in the University, died in 1348. Both his daughters, we are told, were married to eminent lawyers. Bettina, the eldest, to Giovanni di San Giorgio, who held a professorship ﬁrst at Bologna and subsequently at Padua; the younger, Novella, to Giovanni Calderini, a nobleman of Bologna, into whose house Joannes Andrea had been adopted, in consequence of which adoption both the sisters were called Calderina. Bettina was often in the habit of taking her husband’s place as lecturer at Padua, and Novella that of her father at Bologna, and both are said to have given great satisfaction to the students. Novella, who was a very beautiful woman, used to cover her face with a thick veil while giving her lessons in order that the students' attention might not be diverted from their studies by her beauty.

A still more famous woman-lawyer was, or. She was born at Bologna, where her family was noble, in 1209 and, after having made such progress in general scholarship that at the age of twenty-three she renounced an eloquent funeral oration in Latin in the principal church of the city, she applied herself to the study of law. She had the degree of Doctor conferred upon her by the University, and at last in 1239 was appointed to one of the juridical chairs which she occupied till her death ten years afterwards. Her lectures and the legal works which she published acquired for her a great reputation, although none of them have been preserved.

Signore Santoni de Sio who, four years ago, wrote a book advocating the right of women to practise law in Italy, mentions the names of other women jurisconsults, these are—,, , Maddalena Noé Canedi [recte], , , , and. Unfortunately no particulars of their history have come down to us. Another woman lawyer was, in 1354, who wrote a book called “De legibus connubialibus,” and at a much later date we meet with the name of , an authoress, who was, however, more connected with Pavia than with Bologna. She was born at Oneglia in 1756, and received the degree of doctor of laws in Pavia in her 21st year; she died in 1787.

The Bologna University has been no less remarkable for its women who were doctors and professors of medicine; a long list of ladies, dating from the 12th. century onwards is furnished to us by Italian writers, but of many of them, as of the women-lawyers, we know nothing except the names. The University records mentioned, in the ﬁfteenth century, a lady Professor of Medicine called Bucchi (can this be the same as ?) and, a learned student of anatomy. Similarly we know that a lady, called, was a lecturer on Medicine in Ferrara, and left several works on the physical education of children. Her daughter,, studied surgery in the Bologna University, receiving a medical degree there in 1800. The Italian Government gave her an appointment, and she lived for some time at Ancona acting as Director General of the midwives in all parts of the country. Of, who lived in the last century, we know more particulars. Of her Dr. Sophia Jex-Blake says in Medical Women :—
 * Her exquisitely delicate anatomical models executed in wax became the pride of the Museum at Bologna. She ﬁrst became interested in the study of anatomy in consequence of her wish to help her husband, who was a distinguished anatomist, and a maker of anatomical designs and models. He fell into ill-health and mental despondency, and therefore his wife, loving him dearly and fearing that he would desist from his work, gave herself up to his comfort, and for this purpose became herself an anatomical sculptor, reading works of anatomy, consulting anatomical tables and preparations, taking theoretical and practical lessons from her husband, and, marvellous to say, even dissecting dead bodies with resolute mind and with in credible perseverance. Too long to describe are the works executed in wax by the able hands of this illustrious woman. They were collected in ﬁve elegant cases in our Anatomical Museum. The fourth case encloses delicate illustrations of all the parts belonging to the senses of sight, smell, hearing, taste and touch, stupendous works in which she surpassed herself and also her husband and his colleague, Ercole Lelli. These models were for some time kept in her own house, and each one who saw them spread her renown, so that through distant countries was spread the fame of her works, so that every learned and distinguished person passing through Bologna was solicitous to visit and know personally the maker of these wonders.” Signora Mazzolini also made original discoveries in anatomical science, which obtained for her many marks of distinction from the learned colleges and societies of the day. She was offered a chair at Milan, with increased revenues, but preferred to remain at Bologna, where she lived till her death in 1774. Medici, in his records of the Anatomical School of Bologna, speaks of this lady with profound respect as distinguished alike by “ rare powers," great erudition, gracious manners, and delicate and gentle temperament, and relates that her fame reached the ears of the Emperor, Joseph II., who visited her in 1769, and having seen her works, and heard her conversation, loaded her with public honours.

Another distinguished ornament of the Bologna. University was, who sustained in 1800 with great success theses of philosophy, surgery and medicine. She received the doctor’s degree in 1806. She practised both medicine and surgery, and was appointed by Bonaparte to the chair of midwifery at Bologna.

In addition to the great departments of Law and Medicine, Bolognese ladies hava been eminent in a sister branch of science, that of philosophy.

, alluded to above, was a professor of philosophy. She was born in Bologna early in the ﬁfteenth century, and after having had the degree of Doctor publicly conferred upon her by the University, she was in the year 1436 appointed to a professor's chair, from which she long delivered lectures upon philosophy, “with great acceptance to hearers collected from all parts of Europe." Another celebrated lecturer was, who was born at Bologna in 1711 and died in 1778. At the age of twenty-one she publicly maintained a philosophic thesis before Cardinals Lambertini and Grimaldi, and received the degree of doctor. She was extensively acquainted with Greek, Latin, French and Italian literature, her character is said to have been most amiable, and she was distinguished for her charities.

One of the best known names of the female professors of Bologna is that of, who was born at Milan in 1718. When only nine years old it is recorded of her that she spoke Latin ﬂuently, and she also became skilled in the Hebrew, Greek, German, Spanish and French languages, Having made great progress in speculative philosophy, she published in her twentieth year, under the title of Propositiones Philosophicae, a series of 191 theses which she had previously defended. In her thirty-second year she was so noted for her attainments in mathematics that she was appointed to her father’s chair at Bologna when he became unable to discharge his professional duties. One of her works, “Analytical Institutions,” published in 1745, was translated into English by Professor Colson of Cambridge. Maria Agnesi died at an advanced age.

Still more recent is the history of, celebrated for her knowledge of Greek. She was born at Bologna in 1758, and had a brother, Guiseppe Tambroni, also distinguished in literature. It is said that she picked up the rudiments of Greek while sitting at work in the room where he was learning his lesson, and her acquirements were discovered by her helping him one day when he was at fault. Her parents, apparently proud of their daughter, then conﬁded her education to the care of two learned Spanish Jesuits, Fathers Colomés and d’Aponte; under their care she made such progress that she wrote a poem which was recited in the academy of the Mestricati [recte Inestricati] and procured her admission to that society. Many other Italian academies eagerly enrolled her among their members, and in 1794 the senate of her native city appointed her to the Greek professorship in the University. She only held this appointment four years, for in 1798 she was dispossessed on the occupation of Italy by the French and the establishment of the Cispadine Republic, because she would not take the oath of hatred to royalty. She was afterwards restored to ofﬁce by Bonaparte, but was again displaced by an order suppressing all the Greek chairs in the Italian Universities. From this time to her death in 1817 she led a very retired life. She knew French, Spanish, and English, besides Latin and Greek, of which latter language Ansse de Villoison, one of the scholars of the time, declared there were not above three men in Europe who were able to write the language so well. Her published works consist of several odes and elegies in Greek, but she left many compositions in MS., and carried on an extensive correspondence with her learned contemporaries. Her character is as highly spoken of as her learning, “Her morals were as pure as her manners were amiable. Her heart, closed against vulgar passions, readily opened to generous sentiments, and nothing could equal her gratitude towards the learned persons who had super intended her education. She was especially attached to Father d’Aponte, whom she never quitted so long as he lived, and to whose memory, after he died, she erected at her own expense, a modest tomb in the Carthusian monastery at Bologna.”

In the above list we have conﬁned ourselves chieﬂy to Bologna, which was foremost in its liberality towards women, but the other Italian Universities were but little backward in recognising their services. Thus, lectured at Ferrara and Padua as well as at Bologna. In the 12th century, a lady of Salerno, wrote medical works in Latin. was lecturer on physics at Rovigo. had a lecturer’s chair at Padua. , a native of Brescia, at the age of seventeen maintained public disputations on philosophy, and afterwards ofﬁciated as professor for seven years with great distinction. , a Venetian lady of the ﬁfteenth century, once disputed publicly in Padua on philosophy and theology with some of the most distinguished doctors of the age, and came off in triumph from every encounter, while, another Venetian lady born in 1616, was created a Mistress of Arts in the Padua University, June 25th. 1678, the ceremony taking place in the cathedral, in consequence, as the entry of the reception in the Register of the University declares, “of the ordinary academic hall being insuﬁicient to contain the immense concourse that attended.” It is said she would also have been made a Doctor of Divinity had not Cardinal Barbarigo, who was then Bishop of Padua, resisted the suggestion. , the daughter of a nobleman of Reggio, in the seventeenth century maintained philosophical theses in public disputations at Parma, once having the honour of a cardinal for her opponent.

At the present time women have not played an undistinguished part in Bologna. The ﬁrst in recent times to obtain her degree in medicine was a Russian lady in 1877, and in the same year Signora Desalles, who has since practised in that city. From time to time we hear of other distinguished women students, so that the venerable Alma Mater has the glory of carrying down her earliest traditions of impartial equity and liberality in unbroken succession to the present day.

Commentary
Summary of Cavazza 1997:
 * At Oxbridge and Paris faculty were clerics, but in Italy they were often laymen and sometimes married, and their posts were sometimes unofficially hereditary. "This situation made possible the emergence of learned women, mostly daughters of teachers, instructed by their fathers, who in some cases may have been informal teaching assistants and, in exceptional circumstances, illness or sudden death of the father, been hired as a substitute." The details of known instances are "between vagueness and legend". There are none between 1450 and 1700, probably due to stricter parameters for female roles from the Renaissance to the Counter-Reformation. Cornaro "vigourously opposed" any women emulating his daughter.

Other snippets:
 * "such women as Isotta Nogarola, Olympia Morata, Maria Catorina Agnesi, Anna Maria van Schuurman, and others received scholarly recognition without benefit of a baccalaureate or other degree. It was not until June 25, 1678, that a woman was able to obtain a doctorate for her demonstration of learning."


 * Schwinges: "no place for women"; leading families' daughters might "enter into contact with university circles as if they were 'students of rank'". As cooks wives maids etc, women could "legally be university members" and "matriculate" but as "associates" (same status as male scribes, bookbinders, etc) rather than students or teachers.