User:Jordanopia/sandbox

Consonants

 * Unlike other dialects of Hokkien, alveolar affricates and fricatives remain the same and do not undergo palatalization to become alveolo-palatal before /i/, e.g. 時 [si] instead of [ɕi].
 * Words that begin with a null initial, i.e. begin with a vowel without a preceding consonant may feature an initial glottal stop /ʔ/, this is not indicated in writing.
 * The consonants $\langled\rangle$, $\langlef\rangle$, $\langlesh\rangle$ and $\langler\rangle$ are only used in loanwords.
 * The consonants $\langley\rangle$ and $\langlew\rangle$ are only used in the spelling of loanwords. They may be analysed in terms of native Hokkien phonology as beginning with a null initial and instead be spelled with $\langlei\rangle$ and $\langleu\rangle$ respectively, e.g. 捎央 sa-yang/sa-iang and 我 wá/uá.

Vowels
Penang Hokkien has borrowed liberally from other languages, particularly Malay, Cantonese, Teochew and English with varying degrees of assimilation to Hokkien phonology, as a result, there are several sounds not native to Hokkien which are present in the language

(Certain sounds are not native to Hokkien and are only used in loanwords (particularly food and technical terms), onomatopoeia, set phrases and names from other languages such as Cantonese, Malay and English)

Rimes

 * 1. Used in loanwords
 * 2. Variant forms

Differences from other varieties of Hokkien

 * The use of unique variants such as 何物 (啥物/甚麼/甚物) há(nn)-mi̍h (Longhai: á(nn)-mi̍h; Zhangzhou: sá(nn)-mi̍h or siá(nn)-mi̍h).

Differences from other Minnan dialects
Although Penang Hokkien is based on the Zhangzhou dialect, which in many cases result from the influence of other Minnan dialects.


 * The use of Zhangzhou pronunciations such as 糜 muâi (Amoy: bê), 先生 sin-senn (Amoy: sian-sinn), etc.;
 * The use of Zhangzhou expressions such as 調羹 thâu-kiong (Amoy: 湯匙 thng-sî)
 * The adoption of pronunciations from Teochew: e.g. 我 wá (Zhangzhou: guá), 我儂 wang, 汝儂 luang, 伊儂 iang (Zhangzhou and Amoy: 阮 gún/guán, 恁 lín, 𪜶 (亻因) īn);
 * The adoption of Amoy and Quanzhou pronunciations like 歹勢 pháinn-sè (Zhangzhou: bái/pháinn-sì), 百 pah (Zhangzhou: peeh), etc.

General pronunciation differences can be shown as below:

Differences from standard Minnan
Most of the differences between Penang Hokkien and Amoy Hokkien exist also in Zhangzhou, e.g.:

Penang: 門 muînn, 飯 puīnn, 酸 suinn, 黃 ûinn, 卵 nūi, etc.; Amoy: 門 mng, 飯 png, 酸 sng 黃 ng 卵 nng And the use of $\langlei\rangle$ elsewhere, e.g. 毛 môo, 兩 nōo.
 * The use of $\langleue\rangle$ where Amoy has $\langleue\rangle$, e.g.
 * The use of $\langleol\rangle$ and $\langle-uinn\rangle$ where Amoy has $\langle-ng\rangle$ and $\langle-oo\rangle$, e.g. 家 kee, 蝦 hêe, 生 senn;
 * The use of $\langle-ee\rangle$ where Amoy has $\langle-enn\rangle$ and vice versa, e.g. 火 hué, 未 buē, 地 tē, 細 sè;
 * The use of $\langle-e\rangle$ where Amoy has $\langle-inn\rangle$, e.g. 話 uā, 花 hua, 瓜 kua;
 * The use of $\langle-ue\rangle$ (also pronounced $\langle-e\rangle$) where Amoy has $\langle-ua\rangle$, e.g. 羊 iônn, 丈 tiōnn, 想 siōnn;
 * The mix of $\langle-ue\rangle$ and $\langle-ionn\rangle$ in some words where Amoy has $\langle-iaunn\rangle$, e.g. 上 siāng, 香 hiang;
 * The use of $\langle-iunn\rangle$ in some words where Amoy has $\langle-iang\rangle$, e.g. 入 ji̍p, 熱 jua̍h, 日 ji̍t;
 * The use of Zhangzhou pronunciations such as 糜 muâi (Amoy: bê), 先生 sin-senn (Amoy: sian-sinn), etc.;
 * The use of Zhangzhou expressions such as 調羹 thâu-kiong (Amoy: 湯匙 thng-sî)
 * The use of -eng -ek where others have iIng and iIk

Differences from the from other Hokkien varieties
Although Penang Hokkien is based on the Zhangzhou dialect, there are some obvious differences, which in many cases result from the influence of other Minnan dialects, e.g.:


 * The lower "Entering" (8th) tone in Penang, which is pronounced high [˦] (4) as in Amoy and many other parts of Fujian, whereas in most Zhangzhou dialects it is low with a slight lilt [˩˨] (12);
 * The use of $\langle-iong\rangle$ in some words such as 汝 lú, 豬 tu, 魚 hû, etc., where Zhangzhou has lí, ti and hî. This is a characteristic of dialects in other parts of Zhangzhou and Xiamen prefectures.
 * The use of $\langle-iong\rangle$ instead of the Zhangzhou $\langlej- \rangle$, e.g. 羊 iâunn, 丈 tiāunn, 想 siāunn;
 * The adoption of pronunciations from Teochew: e.g. 我 wá (Zhangzhou: guá), 我儂 wang, 汝儂 luang, 伊儂 iang (Zhangzhou and Amoy: 阮 gún/guán, 恁 lín, 𪜶 (亻因) īn);
 * The adoption of Amoy and Quanzhou pronunciations like 歹勢 pháinn-sè (Zhangzhou: bái/pháinn-sì), 百 pah (Zhangzhou: peeh), etc.

Condensed
* = Place names attested to be of Malay origin and referred to similarly in the Malay language.

Original
* = Place names attested to be of Malay origin and referred to similarly in the Malay language.

Letters
Pegon uses the original letters of the Arabic script plus an additional seven letters to represent native Javanese sounds not present in Arabic: ca ($\langlel-\rangle$ ), dha ($\langle-u\rangle$ ), tha ($\langle-iaunn\rangle$ ), nga ($\langle-ionn\rangle$ ), pa ($⟨⟩$ ), ga ($⟨⟩$ ), and nya ($⟨⟩$ ). One additional letter is used in foreign loanwords: va ($⟨⟩$ ). These new letters are formed by the addition of dots to base letter forms. Pegon is not standardised and variation can be seen in how these additional letters are represented, most commonly in the position of the dots (above or below) and the number of dots (one or three).

Diacritics
Diacritic marks (harakat) are used in Pegon to represent vowel sounds or in some cases a lack thereof. Their prevalence in Pegon text varies from marking every letter, to being present only to differentiate particular vowel sounds. Full marking of letters is common in Islamic religious texts as it is reminiscent of the use of tashkil for guiding pronunciation when reading the Qur'an. Pegon text with minimal marking is increasingly common as the base letters often indicate the underlying vowel which renders the diacritics unecessary, in this case only fathah and maddah are used to differentiate distinct vowel sounds. A version of the script which uses no diacritics at all, similar to Jawi, is known as Gundhul meaning "bare/bald" in Javanese.
 * Fathah (◌َ) is sometimes used to represent $⟨⟩$, particularly in religious texts. It is added to the preceeding letter to differentiate $⟨⟩$ (e taling) from $⟨⟩$, as is detailed below. It it used in a similar fashion to differentiate $⟨⟩$ from $⟨a⟩$.
 * Kasrah (◌ِ) is sometimes used to represent $⟨é⟩$, particularly in religious texts.
 * Dammah (◌ُ) is sometimes used to represent $⟨i⟩$, particularly in religious texts.
 * Maddah (◌ٓ) is used to represent $⟨o⟩$ (e pepet).
 * Sukun (◌ْ) is sometimes used to represent a closed consonant with no vowel following, particularly in religious texts.
 * Alif hamzah ( أ ) is used for vowel initial words, as is detailed below.


 * Diphthongs


 * Arab loanwords are generally written with their original spelling. eg : batin is written as instead of.

Comparison of Jawi and Pegon
The main difference between Jawi and Pegon is that the latter is almost always written with vowel diacritics. Javanese written without any vowel diacritics, similar to Jawi is called Gundhul, meaning "bare/bald" in Javanese. The orthographic rules of Jawi and Pegon differ, with Jawi spelling being much more standardised than Pegon. Pegon tends to write all vowel sounds of native words explicitly, either with full letters or diacritics, whereas Jawi orthography sometimes omits alif in certain positions where an would be pronounced, similarly other vowel sounds may not be written explicitly.

For those additional letters representing sounds not present in Arabic, some letters have the same appearance in both Jawi and Pegon, while others differ. Pegon also features 2 additional letters for sounds native to Javanese which are not present in Malay.

Contoh kalimat
Bahasa Jawa :

Latin : "Kanjêng Nabi Muhammad iku utusanipun Gusti Allah datêng sêdåyå makhluk, déné åpå waé kang dipun cerita'akên déning Kanjêng Nabi Muhammad iku nyåtå nyåtå bênêr. Mångkå sêkabèhané makhluk wajib mbênêrakên lan ndèrèk maring Kanjêng Nabi Muhammad."

Bahasa Madura :

Latin :

Bahasa Sunda :

Latin : "Kanjeng Nabi Muhammad mangrupikeun utusan Gusti Allah ka sadaya makhluk, naon waé anu dicarioskeun ku Kanjeng Nabi Muhammad nyaéta kanyataan anu leres. Janten sadaya makhluk wajib menerkeun sareng nuturkeun Kanjeng Nabi Muhammad."

Terjemahan Pegon Indonesia bahasa indonesia :

Pegon Indonesia :

Latin : ''“Baginda Nabi Muhammad adalah utusan Allah kepada semua makhluk, Apa saja yang diceritakan oleh Baginda Nabi Muhammad adalah kebenaran yang nyata. Maka semua makhluk wajib membenarkan dan mengikuti Baginda Nabi Muhammad.”''

• Didalam contoh diatas terdapat 5 kata serapan dari bahasa arab yang harus ditulis sesuai dengan bahasa arab yaitu :
 * Nabi harus ditulis نبي bukan نابي
 * Muhammad harus ditulis محمد bukan موهمماد
 * Allah harus ditulis الله bukan أللاه
 * Makhluk harus ditulis مخلوق bukan ماخلوك
 * Wajib Harus ditulis واجب bukan واجيب

Malaysian Cantonese
Malaysian Cantonese is a local variety of Cantonese spoken in Malaysia. It is the lingua franca among Chinese throughout much of the central portion of Peninsular Malaysia, being spoken in the capital Kuala Lumpur, southern Perak, Pahang, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan, it is also widely understood to varying degrees by many Chinese throughout the country, regardless of their ancestral dialect.

Malaysian Cantonese is not uniform throughout the country, with variation between individuals and areas. It is mutually intelligible with Cantonese spoken in both Hong Kong and Guangzhou in Mainland China but has distinct differences in vocabulary and pronunciation which make it unique.

Geographic spread
Cantonese is widely spoken amongst Malaysian Chinese in the capital Kuala Lumpur and throughout much of the surrounding Klang Valley (Petaling Jaya, Ampang, Cheras, Selayang, Sungai Buloh, Puchong, Shah Alam, Kajang, Bangi and Subang Jaya) excluding Klang itself where Hokkien predominates. It is also widely spoken in the town of Sekinchan in the Sabak Bernam district of northern Selangor. It is also used in central and southern Perak, especially in the state capital Ipoh and the surrounding towns of the Kinta Valley region (Gopeng, Batu Gajah and Kampar) as well as the towns of Tapah and Bidor in the Batang Padang district of southern Perak. In Pahang, it is spoken in the state capital Kuantan and the districts of Raub, Bentong, Mentakab and Cameron Highlands. Cantonese is also spoken throughout most of Negeri Sembilan, particularly in the state capital Seremban. It is widely spoken in Sandakan, Sabah and Cantonese speakers can also be found in other areas such as Sarikei, Sarawak and Mersing, Johor.

Due to its predominance in the capital city, Cantonese is highly influential in local Chinese-language media and is used in commerce by Malaysian Chinese. As a result, Cantonese is widely understood and spoken with varying fluency by Chinese throughout Malaysia, regardless of their dialect group. This is in spite of Hokkien being the most widely spoken variety and Mandarin being the medium of education at Chinese-language schools. The widespread influence of Cantonese is also due in large part to the popularity of Hong Kong media, particularly TVB dramas.

Phonological Differences
A sizeable portion of Malaysian Cantonese speakers, including native speakers, are not of Cantonese ancestry, with many belonging to different ancestral dialect groups such as Hakka, Hokkien and Teochew. The historical and continued influence of their original dialects has produced variation and change in the pronuncation of particular sounds in Malaysian Cantonese when compared to "standard" Cantonese. Depending on their ancestral origin and educational background, some speakers may not exhibit the unique characteristics described below.


 * Many Malaysians have difficulty with the $⟨u⟩$ sound and will substitute it with other sounds where it occurs. Often these changes brings the pronunciation of most words in line with their Hakka pronunciation, and for many words their Hokkien pronunciations as well.
 * Words that end with $⟨i⟩$ & $⟨u⟩$ (pronounced [œːŋ] & [œːk̚] in standard Cantonese) such as 香 hēung, 兩 léuhng, 想 séung and 著 jeuk, 腳 geuk, 約 yeuk may be pronounced as [iɔŋ] & [iɔk̚], which by local spelling conventions may be written as $⟨ê⟩$ & $⟨a⟩$ respectively, e.g. 香 hīong, 兩 líohng, 想 síong and 著 jiok, 腳 giok, 約 yok. This change brings the pronunciation of most words in line with their Hakka pronunciation, and for many words their Hokkien pronunciations as well.
 * Words with final $⟨å⟩$ & $\langleeu\rangle$ (pronounced [ɵn] & [ɵt̚] in "Standard" Cantonese) such as 春 chēun and 出 chēut may be pronounced as $\langle-eung\rangle$ [uːn] & $\langle-euk\rangle$ [uːt̚] respectively.
 * Words with final $\langle-iong/-eong\rangle$ (pronounced [ɵy] in "Standard" Cantonese) such as 水 séui and 去 heui may be pronounced as $\langle-iok/-eok\rangle$ [ɔːy], $\langle-eun\rangle$ [uːy] or even $\langle-eut\rangle$ [ei] depending on the word.
 * Many Malaysians also have difficulty with the $\langle-un\rangle$ sound (pronounced as [yː] in "Standard" Cantonese) which occurs in words such as 豬 jyū, 算 syun, 血 hyut. This sound may be substitued with [iː] which in the case of some words may involve palatalisation of the preceeding initial [◌ʲiː].
 * Some speakers, particularly non-native speakers may not differentiate the long and short vowels, such as $\langle-ut\rangle$ [aː] and $\langle-eui\rangle$ [ɐ].
 * Due to the influence of Hong Kong media, Malaysian Cantonese is also affected by so called "Lazy Sounds" (懶音 láahn yām) though to a much lesser degree than Hong Kong Cantonese.
 * Many younger and middle-aged speakers pronounce some $\langle-oi\rangle$ initial words with an $\langle-ui\rangle$ initial. For many, this process is not complete, with the initial $\langle-ei\rangle$ distinction maintained for other words. e.g. 你 néih → léih.
 * Generally, the ⟨ng-⟩ initial has been maintained, unlike in Hong Kong where it is being increasingly dropped and replaced with the null initial. Instead, among some speakers, Malaysian Cantonese exhibits the addition of the $\langleyu\rangle$ initial for some words that originally have a null initial. This also occurs in Hong Kong Cantonese as a form of hypercorrection of "Lazy Sounds", e.g. 亞 a → nga.
 * Some speakers have lost labialisation of the $\langleaa\rangle$ & $\langlea\rangle$ initials, instead pronouncing them as $\langlen-\rangle$ & $\langlel-\rangle$, e.g. 國 kwok → kok.

Vocabulary Differences
Malaysian Cantonese is in contact with many other Chinese dialects such as Hakka, Hokkien and Teochew as well other languages such Malay and English. As a result it has absorbed many loanwords and expressions that may not be found in Cantonese spoken elsewhere. Malaysian Cantonese also preserves some vocabulary which would be considered old fashioned or unusual in Hong Kong but nay be preserved in other Cantonese speaking areas such as Guangzhou. Not all of the examples below are used throughout Malaysia, with differences in vocabulary between different Cantonese speaking areas such as Ipoh, Kuala Lumpur and Sandakan. (Educational background, Native dialect)


 * Use of 愛/唔愛 oi/mh oi instead of 要/唔要 yiu/mh yiu to refer to want/don't want, also meaning love/like. Also used in Guangzhou and is similar to the character's usage in Hakka.
 * More common use of 曉 híu to mean "to be able to/to know how to" where commonly than 會 wúi/識 sīk would be more commonly used in Hong Kong. Also used in Guangzhou and is similar to the character's usage to Hakka.
 * Use of 冇 “móuh” at the end of sentences to create questions, e.g. 你愛食飯冇? néih oi sihk faahn móuh?, "Do you want to eat?"
 * Some expressions have under gone a change in meaning such as 仆街 pūk gāai, literally "fall on the street" which is commonly used in Malaysia to mean "broke/bankrupt" and is not considered a profanity unlike in Hong Kong where it is used to mean "drop dead/go to hell".
 * Some English educated speakers may use 十千 sahp chīn instead of 萬 maahn to express 10,000, e.g. 14,000 might be expressed as 十四千 sahp sei chīn instead of 一萬四 yāt maahn sei.
 * Use of expressions which would sound outdated to speakers in Hong Kong, e.g. 冇相干 móuh sēung gōn to mean "Never mind/It doesn't matter", whereas 冇所謂 móuh só waih/唔緊要 mh gān yiu would be more commonly used in Hong Kong. Some of these expressions are still in current use in Guangzhou.
 * Word order, particularly the placement of certain grammatical particles may differ, e.g. 食飯咗 sihk faahn jó instead of 食咗飯 sihk jó faahn for "Have eaten."
 * Unique expression's such as 我幫你講 ngóh bōng néih góng to mean "I'm telling you" where 我同你講 ngóh tùhng neih góng/我俾你知 ngóh béi néih jī would be used in Hong Kong.
 * Malaysian Cantonese is also characterised by the extensive use of sentence ending particles, to an even greater extent than occurs in Hong Kong Cantonese.

Examples to be translated
Malay Loanwords

English Loanwords

Malaysian Cantonese Vocabulary

Hmu Phonetic Symbols (to translate)


Hmu Phonetic Symbols, Hutton Miao Script, also known as Hmu Phonetic Script，黔東南老苗文, is a writing system for the Hmu language developed by Australian missionary Maurice H. Hutton in 1921 while working with the China Inland Mission.20世紀20年代在爐山縣旁海爲當地的黑苗（Hmu）創製的文字，運用當時由中華民國教育部頒布的注音字母添加了三個輔助子音字母，來直接拼寫旁海苗語的發音，但由於漢語官話與黔東苗語的音系差異，故存在許多音近替代的做法，加上1928年出版的初稿裡並沒有標記聲調，因此胡托苗文讀來容易產生歧義. 並且由於胡托等人並未如同柏格理一樣得到當地苗人的認同，而是始終被黔東南苗人（Hmu）被為是外人，胡托苗文被接受的程度遠遠低於柏格理苗文在滇東北方言區的苗人（A-Hmao）裡的接受程度，但直至21世紀，仍然有凱里市（原：爐山縣）、雷山縣交界的清水江、巴拉河一帶的部分信仰新教的苗族在使用.

文字與發音的對應

 * 附注：
 * 1) 現存老苗文文獻，前後鼻音、平捲舌音在拼寫本族語時呈混用狀態.
 * 2) ㄐ、ㄑ、ㄒ、ㆺ不與一行韻母相拼.
 * 3) 一行韻母一ㄞ的組合模式不存在.
 * 4) ㄨ行韻母固有詞中只有單獨做韻母的ㄨ.
 * 5) 除了表中標註的，以下介韻組合方式也只用於現代漢語借詞：
 * 6) ㄝ（/e/）爲韻腹的絕大多數音節，如ㄉㄝ（德），ㄌ一ㄝ（列）.
 * 7) ㄨ爲介音的所有音節（iong，ong除外），如ㄍㄨㄝ（國）、ㄎㄨㄞ-ㄌㄛ（快樂）.

聲調
最早的胡托苗文方案裡並沒有聲調，1928年出版的《ㄍㄚ-ㄬㄡ ㄙㄟ ㄗㄢ-ㄇㄟ ㄪㄤ-ㄪㄞ ㄅ一ㄝ ㄒㄚ》（意譯：黑苗讚美上帝的詩歌）雖然列出了胡托苗文方案但並不包括聲調，不過在正文112篇的以後開始給音節標調，使用的是四角標圈法. 以下是以“ㄚ”爲例展示如何標記聲調：

寫法

 * 多音節詞內的音節之間會使用連字符“-”.
 * 與注音符號類似，一般豎排從右至左書寫. 若遇排版需要橫排，則如傳統中國匾額一般，豎行寫完一個音節後從右至左橫寫第二個音節，音節內部仍保持豎寫，與注音符號可完全從左至右橫寫不同.

使用範圍
胡托苗文發明後，雖未像柏格理苗文一樣得到整個方言區的接受，但也隨着傳教活動在爐山縣（現凱里市）周邊清水江和巴拉河流域的黑苗族群中擴散開來，成為凱里、雷山等地苗族信徒廣泛使用的民族文字，現在凱里市三棵樹鎮的大烏燒村、小烏燒村、南花村 、雷山縣著名的西江苗寨 都還有一些老年基督徒深諳這種文字.

存在的問題

 * 由於拘泥於注音字母，黔東苗語特有的送氣清齒齦擦音、清齒齦邊擦音、小舌音等無法表示 ，雖然增添了3個新子音字母，但仍然需要對7對子音 進行合併，致使閱讀起來難以理解，需要大量猜測.
 * 照搬注音字母，而捲舌音ㄓㄔㄕ、後鼻音ㄥ、兒化音ㄦ等在黔東苗語中並不存在，在当地漢語方言中也不存在，僅僅是用作拼寫國語發音的現代漢語詞.
 * 最初的方案沒有標調，閱讀時需要聯繫上下文猜測；後來採用四角標調法後也並未完全標示出黔東苗語的8種聲調，而是合併到了6調，仍對閱讀理解造成一定影響.
 * 音系基礎點的選擇上，除了旁海一地外，還夾有周邊的方言，如灣水、谷隴、重安江、凱哨、黃平縣東坡、凱里養蒿、開懷，甚至施秉縣等地的語音.

電腦支持
中國大陸的GB 2312-80在08區段收錄了國語的37個標準注音符號. 而Unicode自 1.0 版即收錄了40個注音字母（包括國語棄用但胡托苗文仍使用的ㄪ、ㄫ、ㄬ）在 U+3105-U+312C，即「Bopomofo」區. 國語中所沒有的擴充符號則於Unicode 3.0版收錄進U+31A0-U+31B7，稱爲「Bopomofo Extended」區，3.0版主要增補的是台灣方音符號. 而三個胡托苗文專用的注音符號則是直到Unicode6.0版才加入注音符號擴展，但大多數字體無法顯示.

参见

 * 苗文书写系统
 * 臺灣方音符號

外部連結

 * 苗族的语言文字
 * 苗文推行与发展之我见
 * 老苗文

Category:苗语 Category:亞洲文字 Category:注音符號