User:JuliaPuschizki/sandbox

Arousal-affect model
The arousal-affect model originally states that exposure to erotica elevates the level of sympathetic excitation a person experiences. The residues of the erotica- induced excitation combine with excitation from provocation leads to a more aggressive post-exposure behaviour. The arousal-affect model proposed by Zillmann and Bryant in 1981 had the purpose to reconcile contradictory findings and integrates arousal capacity and different affects that erotica evokes. It originates from the Excitation-transfer theory, also proposed by Zillmann (1971), which states that the residual excitation of a preceding excited emotional reaction can influence another subsequent excited emotional reaction. This model has been changed due to the realisation, that the affective response to erotic communication could interfere with the aggression-facilitating effect of residual excitation (Zillmann, 1971). Furthermore, the emotional incompatibility rationale (Baron, 1974b), which describes that exposure to erotica can extinguish anger to some extent, has been modified, because it failed to explain how strong erotica could evoke aggression-enhancing effects.

Empirical support
The arousal-affect model was created to reconcile the contradicting findings of various studies, which includes the ‘’arousal capacity and affect-eliciting qualities ascribed to erotica’’ (Sapolsky,1985). Zillmann and Sapolsky (1977) found supporting evidence for the model. Their research showed that mild and positive erotica reduced the reported annoyance rate of erotica however, the researchers did not find a reduction in retaliatory behaviour. Other research in support of the arousal-affect model did not affect retaliatory behaviour and aggression after exposure to mild erotica (Baron, 1974a;1974b, Donnerstein et al., 1975).

One contradiction regarding the model would be the research of Donnerstein et al. (1974). After exposure to highly arousing pictures of intercourse and oral sex, the participants showed no reduction in aggressive behaviour. Sapolsky (1985) noted, that this discrepancy could be due to the use of stimuli that evoked a less positive state of arousal.

In general, studies of interfemale aggression like Baron (1979) seem to be supportive of the arousal-affect model. Baron showed the female participants pictures of semi-nude men, which was perceived as non-arousing and pleasing. The researchers noted a reduction in aggression. In another condition, participants were shown explicit pictures of intercourse. The female participants perceived this as arousing and disturbing, which lead to an increase in aggression, as expected by the researchers.

Dolf Zillmann and colleagues performed a study investigating the effects of visual erotica on motivated aggressive behaviour. Their motivation for this study were contradictory findings in prior studies on this topic. In different prior studies, both increases and decreases in aggressive behaviour after exposure to erotica had been found.

Zillmann and colleagues proposed their hypothesis based on the two-component model of erotica effects, which considered an excitatory potential and hedonic valence of the presented erotica, arguing that low excitatory potential and positive hedonic valence would lead to reduced aggression, whereas high excitatory potential and negative hedonic valence would lead to increased aggression.

The overall aggression evoking potential could be determined by adding the values of the two components. To test this hypothesis an experiment was constructed and subjects were placed in one of nine conditions consisting of a control group who was shown no visual material and eight groups that were shown visual material that differed in the combination of the parameters erotica and no erotica, high and low excitatory potential, and positive and negative hedonic valence. Subjects were invited under the wrong belief that they would participate in a study testing game strategies and were instructed to play a one-way version of the game battleship against another purported subject, who in reality was an experimenter.

In the game, the subject was assigned as defence and the experimenter acting as another subject was led to another room and assigned as offence. The game was played three rounds. During the game, the experimenter playing offence would provoke the subject with verbal insults via an intercom the subject could in return press a button to deliver a noxious noise via headphones to the ear of the offensive player. The duration and frequency of that noise were used as a measure of aggressive behaviour. After the second round the game was interrupted, the subject was shown the condition-specific visual material and the game was resumed for the last round.

During the experiment, the blood pressure and the heart rate of the subject were measured three times: at the beginning of the experiment, after the provocation and after watching the visual material. The results of this study support the hypothesis strongly and both excitatory potential and hedonic valence produced results as anticipated.

Limitations and criticism
Research promoting positive effects of the arousal affect-model found that the effect of enhanced arousal can lead to a relative decrease in aggressive behaviour, as much as it can lead to an increase in aggressive behaviour, depending on the stimuli. Furthermore, arousal may be associated with enhanced inhibition, meaning researchers found that instead of promoting aggressive behaviour it can serve as a stress and arousal release. In addition, research found there is a difference in behaviour between males and females, therefore a gender difference might be a biologically given factor in relation to aggression.

In a study convicted by Zillman and Bryant, they observed no difference in the effect of arousing, when they showed participant erotica with aggressive cues and when they showed participants with no aggressive cues. This rules out findings that state that sexual and nonsexual arousal function to motivate intermale aggression more. People may be uncomfortable, not because of particular content, but because the subjects have to confirm if they want to watch it or not, should also take into account. This factor could also influence the results.