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PUBLISHED Article Lead
The use of plastic has increased twenty-fold since 1964, and it is expected to double by 2035. Despite efforts to implement recycling programs, recycling rates tend to be quite low. For instance, in the EU, only 29% of the plastic consumed is recycled, and 30% finishes in landfills. The plastic that does not reach a landfill or recycling facility, will most likely end up in our oceans due to accidental dumping of the waste, losses during transport, or direct disposal from boats. In 2010, it was estimated that 4 to 12 million metric tons (Mt) of plastic waste entered into marine ecosystems. All this plastic that is accumulating in marine ecosystems serve as a habitat for various types of microorganisms, which is where scientists coined the term Plastisphere.

Plastic pollution provides a more durable "ship" than biodegradable material for carrying the organisms over long distances. This long distance transportation can move microbes to different ecosystems and potentially introduce invasive species as well as harmful algae. The microorganisms found on the plastic debris include autotrophs, heterotrophs and symbionts. The ecosystem created by the plastisphere differs from other floating materials that naturally occur (i.e., feathers and algae) due to the slow speed of biodegradation and the different conditions. In addition to microbes, insects have come to flourish in areas of the ocean that were previously uninhabitable. The sea skater, for example, has been able to reproduce on the hard surface provided by the floating plastic.

Research
The plastisphere was first discovered by a team of three scientists, Dr. Linda Amaral-Zettler from the Marine Biological Laboratory, Dr. Tracy Mincer from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and Dr. Erik Zettler from Sea Education Association. They collected plastic samples during research trips to study how the microorganisms function and alter the ecosystem. They analyzed plastic fragments collected in nets from multiple locations within the Atlantic Ocean. The researchers used scanning electron micrographs to determine what was colonizing the plastic surface. Using a "combination of high-powered microscopy and state-of-the-art DNA sequencing," the researchers were able to identify thousands of diverse organisms that were distinct from the "natural" environment. The researchers highlighted that the plastisphere is highly distinct from its surrounding ecosystem as the surface of the plastic promotes colonization by microorganisms as well as the formation of biofilm, which support a wide range of metabolic activities, and drive succession of other micro- and macro-organisms. In addition, "Pit formers" were among the most notable finds as they speculate that these cracks and pits provide evidence of biodegradation. Moreover, pit formers may also have the potential to break down hydrocarbons. In their analysis, the researchers also found members of the genus Vibrio, a genus which includes the bacteria that cause cholera and other gastrointestinal ailments. Some species of Vibrio even glow and it is hypothesized that this attracts fish that eat the organisms colonizing the plastic, which then feed from the stomachs of the fish.

Since the discovery of the plastisphere there has a been a multitude of research published on the topic, and many have proposed that the microbial diversity within the plastipshere is very high. Other researchers have gone beyond simply identifying the types of microbes. For instance, one study in the South Pacific Ocean looked at the plastisheres potential CO2 and N2O contrbution, where they found failry low greenhouse gas contribution, but noted that this was dependent on the degree of nutrient concentration of the plastic type. In another study which looked at the factors influencing the diversity of the plastisphere, the researchers found that the highest degree of unique microorganisms tended to favour plastic peices that were blue.

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Microorganisms
Plastic that has made its way into marine habitats has been found to host various microorganisms. The hydrophobic nature of plastic surfaces stimulates rapid formation of biofilms, which support a wide range of metabolic activities, and drive succession of other micro- and macro-organisms.

A recent study identified more than 1,000 species of bacteria and algae attached to microplastic debris, including members of the genus Vibrio, a genus which includes the bacteria that cause cholera and other gastrointestinal ailments. Some of these bacteria even glow and it is hypothesized that this attracts fish that eat the organisms colonizing the plastic, which then feed from the stomachs of the fish.

Plastic pollution provides a more durable "ship" than biodegradable material for carrying the organisms over long distances. This long distance transportation can move microbes to different ecosystems and potentially introduce invasive species as well as harmful algae. The microorganisms found on the plastic debris include autotrophs, heterotrophs and symbionts. The ecosystem created by the plastisphere differs from other floating materials that naturally occur (i.e., feathers and algae) due to the slow speed of biodegradation and other different conditions.

In addition to microbes, insects have come to flourish in areas of the ocean that were previously uninhabitable. The sea skater, for example, has been able to reproduce on the hard surface provided by the floating plastic.

PUBLISHED

Degradation by organisms
Some organisms have the potential to accelerate the biodegradation process of plastic materials into potentially hazardous chemicals. This could be potentially advantageous, as scientists may be able to utilize the microbes to break down plastic that would otherwise remain intact longer. On the other hand, as plastic is broken down into smaller pieces and eventually microplastics, there is a higher likelihood that it will be consumed by plankton and enter into the food chain. As plankton are eaten by larger organisms, the plastic may eventually cause there to be bioaccumulation in fish eaten by humans.

Often times the degradation process of plastic by microorganisms is quite slow. However, scientists have been working towards genetically modifying these organisms in order to increase plastic biodegradation potential. For instance, Ideonella sakaiensis has been genetically modified to break down PET at faster rates. Multiple chemical and physical pretreatments have also been demonstrated to enhance the degree of biodegradation of different polymers. For instance UV or c-ray irradiation treatments, has been used to heighten the degree of biodegradation of certain plastics.

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Some of the organisms that break down plastics include :

One of these organisms (Ideonella sakaiensis) has been genetically modified to break down the PET even faster and also break down PEF.
 * Aspergillus tubingensis : breaks down polyurethane
 * Bacillus pseudofirmus: breaks down LDPE
 * Exiguobacterium sibiricum: breaks down polystyrene
 * Exiguobacterium undrae: breaks down polystyrene
 * Galleria mellonella caterpillars : breaks down polyethylene
 * Geotrichum candidum: breaks down polycarbonate
 * Ideonella sakaiensis : breaks down PET
 * Tenebrio molitor larvae: breaks down polystyrene
 * Arthrobacter sp. KI72: breaks down 6-aminohexanoate
 * Pestalotiopsis microspora : breaks down polyurethane
 * Salipaludibacillus agaradhaerens: breaks down LDPE

Research
The plastisphere was first discovered by a team of three scientists, Dr. Linda Amaral-Zettler from the Marine Biological Laboratory, Dr. Tracy Mincer from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and Dr. Erik Zettler from Sea Education Association. They collected plastic samples during research trips to study how the microorganisms function and alter the ecosystem. They analyzed plastic fragments collected in nets from multiple locations within the Atlantic Ocean. The researchers used scanning electron micrographs to determine what was colonizing the plastic surface. Using a "combination of high-powered microscopy and state-of-the-art DNA sequencing," the researchers were able to identify thousands of diverse organisms that were distinct from the "natural" environment. The researchers highlighted that the plastisphere is highly distinct from its surrounding ecosystem as the surface of the plastic promotes colonization by microorganisms as well as the formation of biofilm. In addition, "Pit formers" were among the most notable finds as they speculate that these cracks and pits provide evidence of biodegradation. Moreover, pit formers may also have the potential to break down hydrocarbons.