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Stress (psychological) is used in many different contexts. However, psychological stress is not as vague and all-encompassing as most people believe it to be. Stress is not directly created by external events, but instead by the internal perceptions that cause an individual to have anxiety/negative emotions surrounding a situation, such as pressure, discomfort, etc., which they then deem “stressful”. Humans experience stress, or perceive things as threatening, when they do not believe that their resources for coping with obstacles (stimuli, people, situations, etc.) are enough for what the circumstances demand. When we think the demands being placed on us exceed our ability to cope, we then perceive stress. The feelings often associated with experiencing stress are anxiety and being overwhelmed. Coping mechanisms Main article: Coping (psychology) Individuals deal with perceived threats, or stress, in different ways. There are different classifications for these coping, or “defense” mechanisms, however they all are variations on the same general idea: There are good/productive ways to handle stress, and there are negative/counterproductive ways to do so. Because stress is perceived, the following mechanisms do not necessarily deal with the actual situation that is causing an individual stress. However, often they do, but they are also considered coping mechanisms if they allow the individual to better cope with the negative feelings/anxiety that they are experiencing due to the perceived stressful situation, as opposed to actually fixing the concrete obstacle causing them stress. The following mechanisms are adapted from the DSM-IV Adaptive Functioning Scale, APA, 1994. [edit] Highly Adaptive/Active/Problem-Focused Mechanisms These skills are what one could call as “facing the problem head on”, or at least dealing with the negative emotions experienced by stress in a constructive manner. (generally adaptive) • Affiliation – This mechanism involves dealing with the stress by turning to one's social network for support, but an individual does not share with others in order to diffuse or avoid the responsibility.[1][2] • Humor – Note that this does not include sarcasm. This mechanism allows the individual to step outside of the situation, in order to gain greater perspective, and also to highlight any comic aspect to be found in their stressful circumstances.[1] • Sublimation – This defense allows an “indirect resolution of conflict with neither adverse consequences nor consequences marked by loss of pleasure.[3] Essentially, this mechanism allows the individual to channel their troubling emotions or impulses into an outlet that is socially acceptable. • Positive Reappraisal – This is when an individual redirects their thoughts, their cognitive energy, to good things that are either occurring or have not occurred. This can lead to personal growth, self-reflection, and awareness of the power/benefits of one's efforts.[4] Other adaptive coping mechanisms include anticipation, altruism, and self-observation. [edit] Mental Inhibition/Disavowal Mechanisms These mechanisms cause the individual to have a diminished (or in some cases non-existent) awareness about their anxiety, threatening ideas, fears, etc., that come from being conscious of the perceived threat. • Displacement - This is when an individual redirects their emotional feelings about one situation to another, less threatening one.[5] • Repression – Repression occurs when an individual attempts to remove all their thoughts, feelings, and anything related to the upsetting/stressful (perceived) threat out of their awareness in order to be disconnected from the entire situation. When done long enough in a successful way, this is more than just denial. • Reaction formation – An individual substitutes their feelings or thoughts or behavior with the exact opposite. An attempt to remove any “unacceptable thoughts” from one's consciousness by replacing them with the exact opposite.[6] Other inhibition coping mechanisms include undoing, dissociation, denial, projection, and rationalization. [edit] Active Mechanisms These are ways of dealing with stress in which one literally takes action, or withdraws. • Acting out – Often viewed as counter-normative, or problematic behavior. Instead of reflecting or problem-solving, an individual takes maladaptive action.[2] • Passive aggression – This is when an individual indirectly deals with his or her anxiety and negative thoughts/feelings stemming from their stress by acting in a hostile or resentful manner towards others. Help-Rejecting Complaining can also be included in this category. Depending on the situation, all of these coping mechanisms may be adaptive, or maladaptive. [edit] Stress responses In terms of measuring the body's response to stress, psychologists tend to use Han Selye's general adaptation syndrome. This model is also often referred to as the classic stress response, and it revolves around the concept of homeostasis. This means that the body's response to stressors seeks to return to its equilibrium, or the normal level of stress resistance. During the alarm phase, the body begins to build up resistance to the stressor beyond normal resistance levels. The body continues building up resistance throughout the stage of resistance, until either the body's resources are depleted or the stressful stimulus is removed, leading into the exhaustion phase. This response is designed to help humans in life or death situations, but all types of stressors can trigger this response. A stress response results in elevated physiological arousal, often associated with the release of stress hormones such as cortisol. The physiological arousal in response to stressors is designed to help the body adapt quickly in order to survive and rid itself of the stressful stimuli.[7] This physiological stress response involves high levels of sympathetic nervous system activation, often referred to as the "fight or flight" response. The response involves pupil dilation, release of endorphins, increased heart and respiration rates, cessation of digestive processes, secretion of adrenaline, arteriole dilation, and constriction of veins. This high level of arousal is often unnecessary to adequately cope with micro-stressors and daily hassles; yet, this is the response pattern seen in humans, which often leads to health issues commonly associated with high levels of stress.[8] [edit] Stress and health As seen in the previous section, the physiological response to stress demands much of the body's energy and resources. This often has a great impact on disease and risk for disease. When the body's energy is used to respond to minor (or major) stressors, the immune system's ability to function properly is compromised[9]. This makes the individual more susceptible to physical illnesses like the cold or flu. Stressful events, such as job changes, often result in insomnia, impaired sleeping, and health complaints.[10] Chronic stress and a lack of coping resources available or used by an individual can often lead to the development of psychological issues such as depression and anxiety (see below for further information).[11] This is particularly true regarding daily stressors. These types of stressors tend to have a more negative impact on health because they occur daily and thus require the body's physiological response to occur daily. This depletes the body's energy more quickly and usually occurs over long periods of time, especially when these microstressors cannot be avoided (i.e.- traffic on the way to work). Studies have also proven that perceived chronic stress and the hostility associated with Type A personalities are often associated with much higher risks of cardiovascular disease. This occurs because of the compromised immune system as well as the high levels of arousal in the sympathetic nervous system that occur as part of the body's physiological response to stressful events.[12] However, it is possible for individuals to exhibit hardiness—a term referring to the ability to be both chronically stressed and healthy.[13] Many psychologists are currently interested in studying the factors that allow hardy individuals to cope with stress and evade most health and illness problems associated with high levels of stress. Stress can be associated with psychological disorders such as general anxiety disorder, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. However, it is important to note that everyone experiences some level of stress, and diagnosis of stress disorders can only be performed by a licenced practitioner. [edit] Types of Stressors A stressor is any event, experience, or environmental stimulus that causes stress in an individual.[14] These events or experiences are perceived as threats or challenges to the individual and can be either physical or psychological. Researchers have found that stressors can make individuals more prone to both physical and psychological problems, including heart disease and anxiety.[15] Stressors are more likely to affect an individual's health when they are "chronic, highly disruptive, or perceived as uncontrollable".[15] In psychology, researchers generally classify the different types of stressors into three categories: crises/catastrophes, major life events, and daily hassles/microstressors. [edit] Crises/Catastrophes This type of stressor is unforeseen and unpredictable and, as such, is completely out of the control of the individual.[15] Examples of crises and catastrophes include: devastating natural disasters, such as major floods or earthquakes , wars , etc. Though rare in occurrence, this type of stressor typically causes a great deal of stress in a person's life. A study conducted by Stanford University found that after natural disasters, those affected experienced a significant increase in stress level.[15] [edit] Major Life Events Common examples of major life events include: marriage, going to college, death of a loved one, birth of a child, etc. These events can be either positive or negative. Research has found major life events are somewhat rare to be major causes of stress, due to its rare occurrences.[15] The length of time since occurrence and whether or not it is a positive or negative event are factors in whether or not it causes stress and how much stress it causes. Researchers have found that events that have occurred within the past month generally are not linked to stress or illness, while chronic events that occurred more than several months ago are linked to stress and illness.[16] Additionally, positive life events are typically not linked to stress—and if so, generally only trivial stress—while negative life events can be linked to stress and the health problems that accompany it.[15] [edit] Daily Hassles/Microstressors This category is the most commonly-occurring type of stressor in an individual's everyday life. This includes daily annoyances and minor hassles.[15] Examples include: making decisions, meeting deadlines at work or school, traffic jams, encounters with irritating personalities, etc. Often, this type of stressor includes conflicts with other people. Daily stressors, however, are different for each individual, as not everyone perceives a certain event as stressful. For example, most people find public speaking to be stressful, nevertheless, a seasoned politician most likely will not. There are three major psychological types of conflicts that can cause stress. First, the approach-approach conflict is where a person is choosing between two equally attractive options, i.e. whether to go see a movie or to go see a concert.[15] The second type is the avoidance-avoidance conflict, where a person has to choose between two equally unattractive options, for example, to take out a second loan with unappealing terms to pay off the mortgage or to face foreclosure on one's house.[15] The third type is an approach-avoidance conflict.[15] This is where a person is forced to choose whether or not to partake in something that has both attractive and unattractive traits—such as whether or not to attend an expensive college (meaning taking out loans now, but also meaning a quality education and employment after graduation).

INFORMATION FROM INVITATION TO PSYCHOLOGY Book Sources Pg. 430 Stressors are conflicts that annoy us, pressures that fatigue us, and tragedies and losses that temporarily shatter our lives Pg. 431 General Adaption Syndrome: a series of physiological responses to stressors that occur in three phases: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion '''Alarm Phase: the body mobilizes the sympathetic nervous system to meet the immediate threat. Body reacts by releasing adrenal hormones that produces a boost in energy, tense muscles, reduced sensitivity to pain, the shutting down of digestion, and a rise in blood pressure. Resistance Phase: the body attempts to resist or cope with a persistent stressor that cannot be avoided. The physiological responses of the alarm phase continue and make the body much more vulnerable to other stressors.''' Exhaustion Phase: persistent stress depletes the body of energy and therefore increases vulnerability to physical problems and illness. Physiological responses during first two phases are harmful as unhealthy as long-range responses. Tense muscles can lead to neck pain and head ache. Increased blood pressure levels can lead to chronic hypertension. The interruption of normal digestive function can result in digestive disorders.

Pg 431-432 How our brain reacts to stress: Brain’s hypothalamus sends messages to the endocrine glands. The brain activates the sympathetic division of the automatic nervous system for “fight or flight” reaction (similar to alarm phase). Pg 432 The hypothalamus releases chemical messengers that spur the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol and other hormones that elevate blood sugar and protect the body’s tissues from inflammation in case of injury . If cortisol and other stress hormones stay high too long, they can be harmful, contributing to hypertension, other physical disorders, and possibly emotional problems. People vary widely in their responses to a stressor, depending on their learning, history, gender, preexisting medical conditions, and genetic predispositions for high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, or other problems. When an antigen invades the body, the immune system deploys different kinds of white blood cells in order to fight against the invading cells. Prolonged stress can suppress some or many of these white blood cells. Pg. 432 to 433 Stressors affecting the body: Noise, Bereavement and loss, Work-related problems, poverty and powerlessness In general can result in increased cardiovascular problems, irritability, and aggressiveness as a result to overstimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, increased chances of cancer, increased incidence of hypertension Some people have particular physiological vulnerabilities to stress. But stress, like emotion is also greatly affected by how people think about their experiences and what they do when they feel upset. Sress and the Mind Pg 434 Pessimitic Explanatory Style: Pessimists don’t expect that anything will ever go right, and that attitude is associated with lower achievement, more illness, and slower recovery from setbacks. Pessimists often do self-destructive things that negatively affect their health such as smoke, drink too much, and refuse Optimistic Explanatory Style: the general expectation that, overall, things will go well in site of the occasional set back Optimists may have better health than pessimists because they take better care of themselves when they get sick. They tend to be active problem solvers, seek support and seek helpful information. Health and well being often depends on having some “positive illusions” about yourself and your circumstances and optimism actually seems to produce good health and even prolong life while pessimism is associated with untimely death. Our emotion over stress is connected to our sense of control Pg 434 Locus of Control: general expectation about whether you can control the things that happen to you Pg 434-435 Internal locus of control: tend to believe that they are responsible for what happens to them. Pg 435 External locus of control: tend to believe that their lives are controlled by luck, fate, or other people. Internal locus of control is associated with good health, academic achievement, political activism, and emotional well-being. Most people can tolerate all kinds of stressors if they feel able to predict or control them People who feel like they have more control have fewer stress symptoms. Feelings of control can reduce or even eliminate the link between stressors and illness. Pg 435 The Limits of Control Primary Control: People try to influence events by trying to exert control over them: If you are in a bad situation, you are supposed to change it, fix it, or fight it. Pg 435-36 Secondary Control: People try to accommodate to a bad situation by changing their own aspirations or desires: If you have a problem, you are supposed to live with it or act in spite of it. Pg 436 Benefits of combination of primary and secondary control is that it allows the person to avoid guilt and self-blame while retaining a sense of self-efficacy (the belief that you are basically in charge of your own life and can take steps to get better). Stress and Emotion: Pg 436-437 There is good evidence that once a person already has a virus or medical condition, or is living in a chronically stressful situation, negative emotions can indeed increase the risk of illness and affect the course of recovery. Pg 437 Hostility and Depression: Cynical or antagonistic hostility: characterizes people who are     mistrustful of other and ready to provoke mean, furious arguments Proneness to anger is a significant risk factor for impairments to the immune system, elevated blood pressure, and heart disease. People who are clinically depressed are at considerably greater risk of heart attack, cardiovascular disease, and early death than nondepressed people. Emotional Inhibition: Suppressors tend to deny feelings of anxiety, anger, or fear and pretend that everything is fine. When they are in stressful or emotion-producing situations, their physiological responses, such as heart rate and blood pressure, rise sharply. Suppressors are at greater risk of becoming ill thank people who can acknowledge their fears because prolonged inhibition of thoughts and emotions requires physical effort that is stressful to the body. They also suffer from decreased levels of their immune system. Pg 439 Benefits of Confession/Letting grievances go: Restores feelings of control. Person is able to come to terms with the injustice they suffered and let go of obsessive feelings of hurt, rage, and vengefulness.

NEED HELP IN PUTTING THIS CITATION INTO ARTICLE!!!!! Stress responses. Possible citation for information on three phases response. Pg 431 Invitation to psychology carole wade, carol tavris

INCLUDE SECTION OF TYPES OF PERSONALITIES THAT DEAL BETTER WITH STRESS E.G. optimisits vs pessimist But where? where they talk about Type A personalities????

In the resistance phase the individual's body attempts to resist or cope with a persistent stressor that cannot be avoided. The physiological responses of the alarm phase continue and make the body much more vulnerable to other stressors.