User:KSFWP/Statecraft

Statecraft is the construction of strategies that are used by diplomats to secure national interests in the global arena. These strategies can pertain to any number of subjects, such as national defense, healthcare, foreign aid, military action, and intergovernmental cooperation. Regional and global treaties, participation in intergovernmental organizations such as the UN and EU, and military operations such as those in Iraq and Afghanistan are all examples of statecraft. Statecraft is not a law or a set of rules. It is merely a suggestion of how diplomats should execute decisions as to the nation’s welfare. Statecraft can be related to policy in that it can refer to the process of making important organizational decisions and the effect they will have on their given subject. In addition, statecraft can be included in a variety of other areas of study, such as science, the Space Age/millennium, and history.

First Used
Statecraft has been used for centuries by government leaders to deal with other governments and peoples. While it may not have been called statecraft, leaders have made decisions for their people based on past experiences and future outcomes for thousands of years. By strategizing, diplomats used statecraft to make the decision that would most fully benefit the nation as a whole. Statecraft dates back to before the time of Plato to one of his contemporaries, Isocrates, who wrote To Nicocles. It may also be traced back to Hesiod’s Works and Days. In fact, statecraft is even more ancient than the Greek times of Hesiod and Homer. The ancient Mesopotamians followed a school of thought in which the king acted as shepherd of his people, established no later than the third millennium BC. Another early example of statecraft is presented in the work of Thucydides in The Peloponnesian War. In the book, Thucydides presents three main tenets for those wishing to study statecraft. First, the book contains many observations made by Thucydides and others that may or may not have relevance to the main storyline or plot. In a parallel of statecraft, this would represent the views of the citizens of the nation that the diplomats were trying to defend or represent. Second, the book presents many extreme situations that can be used for comparison from a political standpoint. This would compare and contrast the different decisions statesmen made and the effect of the decisions made on policy. Third, the book contains many accounts of extreme circumstances that men of state put themselves under in pursuance of the best course of action. This represents the hard and delicate work undergone by statesmen.

Development
Medieval times saw an interesting rise in statecraft as states began to portray themselves as sovereign entities, answerable only to the laws of that state. With this, states had many opposing views and had to find a way to communicate effectively without resorting to war or violence. Statecraft was used between the nations so that each could present their national interests and decide on a plan that would be effective for everyone involved. This form of statecraft has been used since then and has developed a very intricate system. This includes the state departments of the government in countries such as the US, the UK, and Canada, as well as other countries around the world. While statecraft has been used for centuries, it has not been as readily studied as political theory has. There is very little information on political theory that has not been discovered yet, while statecraft is a relatively elusive term that can often be mistaken for political theory.

Intervention
A key concept in statecraft is the intervention that results from statesmen conducting negotiations with another country. In the event of a disagreement or misunderstanding, statesmen stand in to assess the damage and to make amendments with the other country in order to avoid a full-out disagreement that could become violent. While intervention of statesmen is important, nonintervention is important also in that it refers to a refrain from getting involved in the inner workings of other governments, such as elections, political appointments and the like. This would violate other rules in place, especially those regarding state sovereignty.

Foreign and Domestic Affairs
Most statecraft refers to decisions made by policymakers in regard to other nations. However, the President of the United States can also engage in statecraft. The President is a public figure and a diplomat in a way as well. The Constitution grants the President implied powers to confront international crises and situations, although they are ambiguous. It is important for these boundaries to be set so that the President can make educated decisions regarding possible solutions. Examples of this are declarations of war and granting aid to foreign countries. One of the President’s implied powers is to settle the claims of United States citizens against foreign governments and its citizens by executive agreement. This concept has been used often, including in a hostage situation in Iran in the 1980s.

How it's Used
Statecraft involves an enormous amount of planning on many accounts. Due to the high risk involved in most situations, planning is essential to statecraft and foreign policy in general. Many different planning strategies have been used in the past, and since World War II, the United States has attempted to identify and implement the most effective planning strategies. Research, development, and controversy continue to the present day in regard to planning statecraft and foreign policy. Theoretical interest continues in the area of planning for statecraft because it provides for the understanding of the relationship between the international environment and the US decision-making machine. Planning can be considered in many different ways. For one, it can be considered as the day-to-day operations of a worker in the Department of State. The planning that is usually attributed to statecraft is that of longer-term, situational planning. There are several types of planning. They include: national strategic planning, policy planning for specific geographic areas, program planning, and contingency planning. These different planning types can then be analyzed in different ways to prepare them for implementation. The first is to consider where it is the strategy will be applied, and the second is to consider who will be applying the strategy. The question of where the strategy will be implemented is not a major point because it is assumed that it is anywhere outside of the United States in an area not controlled by the United States. The most difficult concept about planning for a strategy overseas is obtaining enough information and being able to get it quickly and accurately.

Propaganda/Public Opinion
With the rise of the Internet and other forms of worldwide communication, the concept of statecraft and international relations has been open to worldwide public opinion and the government has increasingly lost hold of its monopoly on the information citizens send and receive. Direct communication with other nations and their citizens has been good in a sense that it has created an international community; however, it also prompts domestic disturbance, discontent, and frustration on the parts of citizens and governments. With this, the importance of public opinion in statecraft has risen dramatically.

Science/History
Statecraft is often and almost always used in the execution of science and history. Many wars and conflicts have included military science, overseen by statesmen and diplomats working together with other representatives from other nations. In addition, statecraft is not only conducted by diplomats, but by the generals and scientists actively pursuing the war effort. An example of this can be seen in World War II. Many scientists, generals, and other military personnel of many nations worked together to create weapons, missiles, radar equipment, and other necessities that seriously altered the effectiveness of the nation’s armies. In addition, much of the choices made regarding personnel, training, and strategy and tactics were made in a scientific manner, despite the fact that all of these things pertain to statecraft as well. As all of these decisions are being made, statecraft and military science are working together to create an effective state. During war time, statecraft and military science advance more quickly together, as it is necessary for information and materials to be obtained quickly. This suggests that more is achieved in the areas of military science and statecraft during war time when time is short. While more advances are made, they then can be used in times of peace as well. Historians and international relations specialists often work together to create a working definition of statecraft and its effects and implications. By studying statecraft, historians and international relations specialists can obtain a serious two-way interaction and investigate what really happens in decision making and strategic interaction, rather than make assumptions using rationale or game theories.

Political Science
In the area of political science, statecraft is important in establishing foreign policy strategy, especially in the area of international relations theory. Research in developing policy-applicable knowledge is generally consistent with efforts to develop international relations theory. The dominant international relations theory in political science is Kenneth Waltz’s structural-realist theory, which is fundamental but insufficient to stand alone as an explanation for foreign policy decisions and outcomes or for the conduction of foreign policy. Foreign policy and statecraft are better understood when there is a general knowledge of the generic problems that occur in foreign policy and statecraft, such as deterrence, crisis management, intervention, war termination, coercive diplomacy, and mediation. Focus on these problems helps bridge the gap present between the studies undertaken by academics and the needs of the policymakers in charge of the nation’s diplomacy.

Past Wars
Statecraft has been used inevitably in all major wars since the beginning of recorded time. Negotiations had to take place between each of the opposing nations in order for the conflict to be resolved. For example, one of the earliest treaties recorded was one between the Egyptians and the Hittite empire, establishing peace after a period of conflict and unrest. Diplomacy and statecraft was created between the two leaders of the nations, resolving the issues between them and restoring peace. The Treaty of Westphalia is also a significant example of statecraft because it created what is now known as the sovereign state. Ending the brutal Thirty Years’ War, the Treaty of Westphalia created the notion that all states would answer only to themselves and their own laws, among other things. Great deals of diplomacy and statecraft were utilized in the creation of this treaty. Statecraft is not only used in the termination of the war, but in the execution as well. As previously discussed, statecraft is conducted in conjunction with science to further military science and create weapons and military necessities quickly. Buying, selling, and trading of weapons and other necessities between countries during times of war is also an example of statecraft.

Space Age and the New Millennium
Statecraft was also present at the beginning of the Space Age in 1957 when the Russians launched Sputnik. With the fascination and wonder came a military threat from Russia, sending the United States into overdrive to compete, a signal that the arms race had begun. The space and missile challenge was mediated and sponsored by the government in order to create centers for research and development to further the innovation and invention. With this continued change and development, the governments of the individual nations changed as well, adapting to better handle the newly introduced technology. In addition, the diplomacy of the nations changed to accommodate the new technology, reflecting the direct relationship between technology and foreign policy or statecraft. Since the 1860s, governments have been increasingly more interested in the scientific and technological advances and fostering their progress.

Evolution in Society
Statecraft has come a very long way since its creation centuries ago. Coming through many different periods, the modern era was marked by many different events that were unsettling, such as the discovery of cosmology by Copernicus in 1453, the European discovery of the Americas in 1492, and Martin Luther’s 95 Theses in 1517. By the sixteenth century, Christendom was falling apart, the feudal communism and government by custom disappearing, and the idea of the sovereign state was becoming the dominant political theory. With this, many larger problems and situations occurred than ever before, and the new independent states were, and still are, unable to handle these problems and situations. This caused the governments to question which situations they should be a part of and which should be left to other states.

Continuing Impact on States
While states continue to be sovereign, in recent years there has been a push for globalization, making borders and states less important and focusing on the global problems and issues at hand, such as world hunger, poverty, the AIDS crisis, and other issues that affect not just one state, but many the central focus. With this, statecraft has become even more important in that states must work together to further the global goals. Although establishing a global community is important and has many benefits, it also has many downfalls. Because the world is becoming “borderless”, the world is opening itself up to potential danger from rogue states, drug and sex traffickers, terrorists, and all kinds of other potentially harmful bodies. This makes statecraft difficult because the question arises of “whose problem is it?” Nations are constantly at odds with one another on the subject of responsibility and accountability.