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pegar        Alicia B. Pomilio; Arturo A. Vitale; Jorge Ciprian-Ollivier; Marcelo Cetkovich-Bakmas; Raquel Gómez; G. Vázquez (1999). Ayahoasca: an experimental psychosis that mirrors the transmethylation hypothesis of schizophrenia. , 65(1), 0–51.         doi:10.1016/s0378-8741(98)00163-9

mais nomes indigenas

Brown EL. (2012) Investigating the use of coca and other psychoactive plants in Pre-Columbian mummies from Chile and Peru. An analytical investigation into the feasibility of testing ancient hair for drug compounds. Doctoral thesis (University of Bradford, Bradford, UK). ""

Origins
Archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive plants in northeastern Amazon dates back to 1500-2000 B.C. Anthropomorphic figurines, snuffing trays and pottery vessels, often adorned with mythological figures and sacred animals, offer a glimpse of the pre-Columbian culture regarding use of the sacred plants, their preparation and ritual consumption [citar naranjo 86]. Although several botanical specimens (like tobacco, cocaine and Anadenanthera spp.) where identified among these objects, there is few unequivocal evidence to this date regarding directly to ayahuasca or B. caapi use, aside from a pouch containing carved snuffing trays, bone spatulas and other paraphernalia with traces of harmine and DMT, discovered in a cave in southwestern Bolivia in 2008. and chemical traces of harmine in the hair of two mummies found in northern Chile. Both cases are linked to Tiwanaku people, circa 900 CE. There is several evidence of oral and nasal use of Anadenanthera spp. (rich in bufotenin) ritualistically and therapeutically during labor and infancy, and researchers suggest that addition of Banisteriopsis spp. to catalyze its psychoactivity emerged later, due to contact between different groups of Amazon and Altiplano.

Despite claims by numerous anthropologists and ethnologists, such as [NARANJO 86], regarding the millennial usage of ayahuasca, compelling evidence substantiating its pre-Columbian consumption is yet to be firmly established. As articulated by Dennis McKenna : "No one can say for certain where the practice may have originated, and about all that can be stated with certainty is that is already spread among numerous indigenous tribes throughout Amazon basin by the time ayahuasca came to the attention of Western ethnographers in the mid-nineteenth century"

The first western references of the ayahuasca beverage dates back to seventeenth century, during the European colonization of the Americas. The earlier report is a letter from Vincente de Valverde to the Holy Office of the Inquisition. Jose Chantre y Herrera still in the seventeenth century, provided the first detailed description of a "devilish potion" cooked from bitter herbs and lianas (called ayaguasca) and its' rituals :       "[...] In other nations, they set aside an entire night for divination. For this purpose, they select the most capable house in the vicinity because many people are expected to attend the event. The diviner hangs his bed in the middle and places an infernal potion, known as ayahuasca, by his side, which is particularly effective at altering one's senses. They prepare a brew from bitter vines or herbs, which, when boiled sufficiently, must become quite potent. Since it's so strong at altering one's judgment in small quantities, the precaution is not excessive, and it fits into two small pots. The witch doctor drinks a very small amount each time and knows well how many times he can sample the brew without losing his senses to properly conduct the ritual and lead the choir".

Another report produced in 1737 by the missionary Pablo Maroni, describes the use of a psychoactive liana called ayahuasca for divination in the Napo River, Ecuador :       "'For divination, they use a beverage, some of white datura flowers, which they also call Campana due to its shape, and others from a vine commonly known as Ayahuasca, both highly effective at numbing the senses and even at taking one's life if taken in excess. They also occasionally use these substances for the treatment of common illnesses, especially headaches. So, the person who wants to divine drinks the chosen substance with certain rituals, and while deprived of their senses from the mouth downwards, to prevent the strength of the plant from harming them, they remain in this state for many hours and sometimes even two or three days until the effects run their course, and the intoxication subsides. After this, they reflect on what their imagination revealed, which occasionally remains with them for delirium. This is what they consider accomplished and propagate as an oracle.'"

Latter reports were produced by Juan Magnin in 1740, describing ayahuasca use as a medicinal plant by the Jivaroan peoples (called ayahuessa) and by Franz Xaver Veigl in 1768, that reports about several "dangerous plants", including a bitter liana used for precognition and sorcery. All these reports were written in context of Jesuit missions in South America, specially the Mainas missions, in Latin and sent only to Rome, so their audience wasn’t very large and they were promptly lost in the archives. For this reason, ayahuasca didn’t receive interest for the entire subsequent century.

Early Academic Research
In academic discourse, the initial mention of ayahuasca dates back to Manuel Villavicencio's 1848 book, "Geografía de la República del Ecuador." This work vividly delineates the employment and rituals involving ayahuasca by the Jivaro people. Concurrently, Richard Spruce embarked on an Amazonian expedition in 1852 to collect and classify previously unidentified botanical specimens. During this journey, Spruce encountered and documented Banisteriopsis caapi (at time named Banisteria caapi) and observed an ayahuasca ceremony among the Tucano community situated along the Vaupés River. Subsequently, Spruce uncovered the usage and cultivation of B. caapi among various indigenous groups dispersed across the Amazon and Orinoco basins, like the Guahibo and Sápara. These multifarious encounters, together with Spruce's personal accounts of subjective ayahuasca experiences, were collated in his 1873 work, "Notes of a Botanist On The Amazon and Andes." . By the end of the century, other explorers and anthropologists contributed more extensive documentation concerning ayahuasca, notably the Theodor Koch-Grünberg's documents about Tucano and Arecuna's rituals and ceremonies, Stradelli's first-hand reports of ayahuasca rituals and mythology along the Jurupari and Vaupés and Alfred Simson's first description of admixture of several ingredients in the making of ayahuasca in Putumayo region, published in 1886.

In 1905, Rafael Zerda Bayón named the active extract of ayahuasca as telepathine, a name latter used by the Colombian chemist Guillermo Fischer Cárdenas when he isolated the substance in 1932. Contemporaneously, Lewin and Gunn were independently studying the properties of the banisterine, extracted of the B. caapi, and its effects on animal models. Further clinical trials were being conducted, exploring the effects of banisterine on Parkinson's disease. Later was found that both telepathine and banisterine are the same substance,Harmine.

Indigenous Use
The ayahuasca has been traditionally used by several indigenous groups, in the past or in the present, in the northwestern region of the Amazon Basin, where Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, and Brazil come together. In the region, recorded data on Ayahuasca use could be traced to more than 130 indigenous groups

Shamanism, Mestizos and Vegetalistas
Researchers like Peter Gow and Brabec de Mori argues that ayahuasca use indeed developed alongside the Jesuit missions after the 17th century. By examining the Ícaros (ayahuasca-related healing chants), they found that the chants are always sung in Quechua (a lingua franca along the Jesuit and Franciscan missions in the region), no matter the linguistic background of the group, with similar language structures between different ícaros that are markedly different from other indigenous songs. Moreover, often the cosmology of ayahuasca often mirrors the catholicism, with particular similarities in the belief that ayahuasca is thought to be the body of ayahuascamama that is imbibed as part of the ritual, like wine and bread are taken as being the body and blood of Jesus Christ during Christian Eucharist. Brabec de Mori called this “Christian camouflage” and suggested that rather than being a way for disguising the ayahuasca ritual, it suggests that practice evolved entirely within these contexts.

Indeed, the colonial processes in western Amazon is intrinsically related with the development of ayahuasca use in the last three centuries, as it promoted a deep reshape in traditional ways of life in the region. Many indigenous groups moved into the Missions, seeking for protection from death and slavery promoted by the Bandeiras, inter-tribal violence, starvation and disease (smallpox). This movement resulted in a intense cultural exchange and resulted in the formation of mestizos (in Spanish) or caboclos (in Portuguese), a social category formed by people with mixture of European and native ancestry, who were a important part of the economy and culture of the region. According to Peter Gow, the ayahuasca shamanism (the use of ayahuasca by a trained shaman to diagnose and cure illnesses) was developed by these mestizos in the processes of colonial transformation. The Amazon rubber cycles (1879-1912 and 1945-1945) sped up these transformations, due to slavery, genocide and brutality against indigenous populations and large migratory movements, specially from the Brazilian Northeast Region as a workforce for the rubber plantations. The mestizo practices became deeply intertwined with the culture of rubber workers, called caucheros (in Spanish) or seringueiros (in Portuguese). Ayahuasca use with therapeutic goals is the main result of result of this Trans-cultural diffusion, with some practitioners pointing the caucheros as the main responsible for using ayahuasca to cure all sort of ailments of the body, mind and soul, even with some regions using the term Yerba de Cauchero ("rubber-worker herb"). As a result, the ayahuasca shamans in urban areas and mestizo settlements, specially in the regions of Iquitos and Pucallpa (in Peru), became the vegetalistas, folk healers whose all their knowledge come for the plants and the spirits bounded to it. So the vegetalist movement is a heterogeneous mixture of western Amazon (mestizo shamanic practices and cauchero culture) and Andine elements (shaped by other migratory movements, like those originated from Cuzco through Urubamba Valley and from western Ecuador), influenced by Christian aspects derived of the Jesuit missions, as reflected by the mythology, rituals and moral codes related to vegetalista ayahuasca use.

Ayahuasca Religions
Although mestizo, vegetalista and indigenous ayahuasca use was part a longer tradition, these several configurations of mestizo vegetalismo were not an isolated phenomena. In the end of nineteenth century several messianic/millenialist cults sparkled across semi-urban areas across the entire Amazon region, merging different elements of indigenous and mestizo folk culture with Catholicism, Spiritism and Protestantism. In this context, the use of ayahuasca will take form of urban, organized non-indigenous religions in outskirts of main cities of northwest of Brazil, (along the basins of Madeira, Juruá and Purus River) within the cauchero/seringueiro cultural complex, resignifying and adapting both the vegetalista and mestizo shamanism to new urban formations, unifying essential elements to building a cosmology for the new emerging cult/faith, merging with elements of folk Catholicism, African-Brazilian religions and Kardecist spiritism. These new cults arise from charismatic leaderships, often messianic and prophetic, who came from rural areas after migration movements, sometimes called ayahuasqueiros, in semi-urban communities across the bordes of Brazil, Bolívia and Peru (a region that will later form the state of Acre). This new configuration os these belief systems is refereed by Goulart as tradição religiosa ayahuasqueira urbana amazônica ("urban-amazonian ayahuasqueiro religious tradition") or campo ayahuasqueiro brasileiro ("brazilian ayahuasqueiro field") by Labate, emerging as three main structured religions, the Santo Daime and Barquinha, in Rio Branco and the União do Vegetal (UDV) in Porto Velho, three denominations that, notwithstanding shared characteristics besides ayahuasca utilization, have several particularities regarding its practices, conceptions and processes building social legitimacy and relationships with Brazilian government, media, science and other society stances.

twentieth century, Barquinha, Santo Daime, and the União do Vegetal (UDV) remained geographically confined to the north of the country until the 1980s. Thereafter, though, they started to become known to a wider public. Santo Daime and the UDV, in particular, expanded significantly, reaching all regions of Brazil and stimulating the production of a sizeable literature on the ritual and religious use of ayahuasca; documented, for example, in the book Ayahuasca Religions: A Comprehensive Bibliography & Critical Essays (Labate et al., 2009).4 Today, the Santo Daime and the UDV diaspora has grown large indeed and involves transnational networks and alliances, raising intriguing questions about cultural tradition, language, and religious diasporas. Santo Daime5 has spread to at least 43 countries on all the inhabited continents (Labate & Assis, 2016), while the UDV is present in the United States, the United Kingdom, Spain, Switzerland, Italy, Holland, and Australia.

Ayahuasca Reaches the West: Neo-Shamanism and Drug Tourism
The fame of ayahuasca in the western world is partly attributed to the book The Yage Letters, written by the beat writer William S. Burroughs in collaboration with Allen Ginsberg, published in 1963. The book consists mainly of letters written by Burroughs in 1953 after he met the research of

Richard Evans Schultes and went to his second trip through South America in the early 1950's in search for ayahuasca in the hopes that it could relieve or cure opiate addiction. The book concludes with correspondence written by Ginsberg in 1960 during his stay in Peru, detailing his own experiences with ayahuasca.

This process developed since Burroughs and Ginsberg’s Yagé Letters (1963), but grew to an important issue only during the last two decades. There is increasing ayahuasca tourism, and ayahuasca healing ceremonies are held throughout the Western world (see e.g. Tupper, 2009; and various contributions to the present volume). Here, ayahuasca receives a new role in therapeutic and psychosocial processes which it never had in the western Amazon.7 “Modern ayahuasca shamans” (or “plastic-medicine-[wo]men,” see Tupper, 2009, p. 125) and users usually attribute “curing power” to this plant preparation without acknowledging that in the western Amazon ayahuasca represents but one small aspect of a highly developed system of medicine and conviviality.

Ayahuasca neoshamanism gained currency at the turn of the twenty-rst cen

-tury, inventing and introducing Western adaptations of indigenous Amazonianshamanism. In the context of Australian ayahuasca circles, these adaptationsinclude portraits of Amazonian shamanism that are characterized by forms of cul-tural idealism and forms of critical discourse mounted against social and cultural

institutions of “mainstream” Australian society.

New Age scene and uso no peru https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13537903.2012.722324?journalCode=cjcr20

The fame of ayahuasca in the world is partly attributed to the book "The Yage Letters" (1963), written in collaboration between American writers William S. Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg. The book consists mainly of letters written by Burroughs in 1953 during his "second trip to Latin American lands in search of yagé or ayahuasca." This journey led him to a short stay in the Peruvian Amazon, where he experimented with ayahuasca. The book concludes with correspondence written by Ginsberg in 1960 during his stay in Peru, detailing his own experiences with ayahuasca.

In the world, there are institutions with mixed teams of native shamans and medical professionals, psychiatrists, and psychologists who work together in ayahuasca therapies. Modern medicine researchers like Dr. Rick Strassman, M.D., have studied in-depth the form and mechanisms of action of the active alkaloids in ayahuasca and their connections with the worldview and spirituality of indigenous peoples in this tradition and other cultures worldwide, such as the Egyptian. They consider the connection with the physiological experience and the spiritual experience induced by ayahuasca and its visionary active alkaloid (DMT) to be essential. In his case, it represents the first serious and officially sanctioned research in the United States with a scientific methodology.

Ayahuasca is also the sacrament of certain Brazilian churches, such as the Santo Daime and the União do Vegetal, which have expanded to the United States and Europe. Their use is supported by the experiences and research of the Brazilian and American governments. These syncretic and culturally integrative religious institutions, which combine elements of Amazonian and Christian traditions, have seen a growing recognition of their religious activity and practice. This legal recognition is based on the exercise of religious freedom and as a traditional expression of Amazonian culture.

Ayahuasca has also been declared a cultural heritage in Peru and Brazil to offer greater protection to the beverage, the rituals, and the culture associated with its use. The use of ayahuasca in countries such as Peru, Brazil, Ecuador, and the United States is legally protected due to the recognition of its traditional and religious uses within the same legal framework that recognizes the rights of native tribal groups as well as religious institutions like the União do Vegetal and Santo Daime.

Brabec de Mori (2011: 28) separates ayahuasca use into two mutually exclusive categories. The first, in which a specialist takes ayahuasca and uses the powers obtained for curing manipulation of the spirit world or sorcery. The specialist’s patients or clients do not take ayahuasca under these circumstances. This is what is known as ayahuasca shamanism. This type of shamanism is practiced by communities that reside along the bigger rivers in the western Amazon region. Mestizo médicos have similar practices, whilst urban shamans differ slightly in that 28  they sometimes allow their patients/clients to drink ayahuasca. In less accessible areas, ayahuasca is taken as part of a group. The group are almost exclusively males. This ritual helps form a cohesive group identity, but also allows the group to acquire supernatural abilities, and to summon success for warfare and hunting. These groups do have specialists who perform curing and sorcery, but without the use of ayahuasca (Brabec de Mori 2011: 28).

In the 16th century, Christian missionaries from Spain first encountered Indigenous people in the western Amazonian basin of South America using ayahuasca; their earliest reports described it as "the work of the devil". In 1905, the active chemical constituent of B. caapi was named telepathine, but in 1927, it was found to be identical to a chemical already isolated from Peganum harmala and was given the name harmine. Beat writer William S. Burroughs read a paper by Richard Evans Schultes on the subject and while traveling through South America in the early 1950s sought out ayahuasca in the hopes that it could relieve or cure opiate addiction (see The Yage Letters). Ayahuasca became more widely known when the McKenna brothers published their experience in the Amazon in True Hallucinations. Dennis McKenna later studied pharmacology, botany, and chemistry of ayahuasca and oo-koo-he, which became the subject of his master's thesis.

In postcolumbian times the mestizo populations continued the ritual and ethnomedicinal uses of the Ayahuasca potions, but unfortunately some reports of explorers and investigators were somewhat confused, probably due to the different aboriginal names in the tribal languages given to the potions, plants and admixtures. In addition, each tribe has its own name for the same plant. For example, in Ecuador, Ayahuasca is known as ‘yaje´’ in the north, ‘mii’ for the Aucas and ‘natema’ for the Shuar (Naranjo, 1979). Richard Spruce, who lived closely with the native Amazonian people, gave detailed, amusing and pioneer information in english on the malpighiaceous narcotic, first described the caapi liana, now called B. caapi (Spr. ex Griseb.) Morton (Malpighiaceae), and witnessed its use among the Tukanoan Indians of the Vaupe´s river of Brazil in 1852 (Schultes, 1968; Pinkley, 1969).

Richard Evans Schultes allowed Claudio Naranjo to make a special journey by canoe up the Amazon River to study ayahuasca with the South American Indians. He brought back samples of the beverage and published the first scientific description of the effects of its active alkaloids.

In Brazil, a number of modern religious movements based on the use of ayahuasca have emerged, the most famous being Santo Daime, Barquinha and the União do Vegetal (or UDV), usually in an animistic context that may be shamanistic or, more often (as with Santo Daime and the UDV), integrated with Christianity. Both Santo Daime and União do Vegetal now have members and churches throughout the world. Similarly, the US and Europe have started to see new religious groups develop in relation to increased ayahuasca use. Some Westerners have teamed up with shamans in the Amazon forest regions, forming ayahuasca healing retreats that claim to be able to cure mental and physical illness and allow communication with the spirit world.

== In recent years, the brew has been popularized by Wade Davis (One River), English novelist Martin Goodman in I Was Carlos Castaneda, Chilean novelist Isabel Allende, writer Kira Salak, author Jeremy Narby (The Cosmic Serpent), author Jay Griffiths (Wild: An Elemental Journey), American novelist Steven Peck, radio personality Robin Quivers,, writer Paul Theroux (Figures in a Landscape: People and Places) and NFL quarterback Aaron Rodgers. ==