User:Karanacs/Bokenkotter

p xiii "Some critics, for instance, have noted, with a certain amount of justice perhaps, a tendency to glide over the

negative and dark aspects of the Church's history"

p 1 "The Catholic Church is the oldest institution in the Western world"

"its inflexible opposition to Roman culture, morals, and religion aroused the savage fury of the state"

after Constantine, the church's "fortunes were henceforth linked intimately with the state" (speaking of western Roman empire)
 * Actually of the Empire as a whole. The phrasing is misleading: Constantine ruled the Western half of the empire from 312 to 324; he ruled the whole Empire after that. The Western Empire collapsed between 408 and 480, but in the century in between the relation of the Church and the state was the same in both halves, which were more often a single realm than not. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 20:08, 5 April 2010 (UTC)

"its popes gradually established their supreme authority over the whole of Christendom"
 * By context, after Gregory the Great - observe that this is "epitomized" by Innocent III. "Nearly a thosand years" is from Gregory to Luther. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 20:08, 5 April 2010 (UTC)

p 7 Catholic Church always has said Jesus was its founder

years 32-600
p 18 in its early days, Christianity was a sect of Judaism, and converts were JEws apostles spread out to Jewish communities around Mediterranean

in Antioch, began preaching to Gentiles

p 19 Gentile converts weren't necessarily following Jewish Law, including circumcision

p 20 a council held about 49 in Jerusalem to resolve the question of whether this Church would be Jewish or not ; decided

circumcision would not be required but that some Jewish laws would be

p 23 by AD 85, Judaism was rejecting Christianity

why did Christianity spread? Rome dominated Mediterranean Sea and good roads/shipping

p 24 the roads/waterways made it easy for missionaries to travel Romans had encouraged their people - in least in the bigger cities - to learn Greek, so easy to be understood in many places

world was at peace at the time - so easy to go places "it was spiritually a time of extraordinary unrest" p 26 lots of mysteries and cults spreading at this time

p 27 The Church's "emphasis on sexual control was a distinctive Church ideal that differentiated it from the pagan world" -

mongamay, marriage can't be dissolved, no abortion or infanticide

p 28 from the early days, Christians supported teachers, widows, orphans, sick, disabled, prisoners

p 30 "The traditional Catholic view of the organization of the Church is that Jesus himself organized it by appointing the twelve

apostles and giving them authority to assume control of the Church after his death....many scholars, including some Catholic

ones, view this conception as a retrojection of the later-developed Church system into the primitive era. ...Many historians,

therefore, prefer the theory that the primitive Church only slowly organized itself and shaped its system of authority in

response to a variety of situations that existed in different localities."

p 32 lots of conflicting interpretations of the religion in the early days

p 33
 * It [episkopos, "bishop"] gradually came into Church usage, and was nearly synonymous at first with the word for elder, presbyter. These elders or bishops governed the churches collectively at first. But gradually one man took over the power and concentrated the various ministries in his hands. He was now called "bishop" to distinguish him from the presbyters, who were his subordinates.

by the end of 1st century, early letters show that the various congregations often had one man, the "bishop", whose opinion held more weight
 * This is Ignatius's view; Brent's argument is that Ignatius is declaring a new system. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 20:16, 5 April 2010 (UTC)

"by 150 or 160 this system of authority was established practically everywhere" (system of having a bishop) the bishop's authority "was based on the claim that he stood in legitimate succession in a line reaching back to the apostles

themselves. The implication was that his teaching would therefore be in conformity with his predecessors."

pp 34 - 35 the list of what would be Canon most complete by early 2nd century; definitive in West in 380-390, and not until later in

East

p 35 bishops in particular regions met in synods to discuss common problems; first we know of in Asia between 160-175 some churches gradually got a little authority over other chuches - metropolitan churches over a region a few others, like Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch had a primacy over the metropolitan churches - mainly due to political

factors - the church in the city that was capital of a Roman province likely was given primacy over the churches in other

cities in that province

p 36 Rome was capital of the empire it was a wealthy churhc, and often willing to assist other churches with monetary things, which "considerably enhanced its

influence"

p 37 "Rome was tolerant in principle and allowed many religions to flourish. It only declared war on Christians when it realized

that their aim was total triumph over all other religions." first recorded persecution by Roman govt - Nero in 64 - actually

reflected public opinion - Christians seen as atheists b/c wouldn't join pagan celbrations ,and they were secretive

p 38 Christians believed they only had to obey the Emperor if what they were asked to do didn't go against what they thought God

wanted them to do - this upset the Emperoers

persecutions came and went depending on who the emperor was - many Christians renounced their faith when push came to shove;

others died instead; when the persecutions stopped, many of the apostates wanted to be admitted again

in late 3rd/early 4th century, Roman Empire in danger from barbarian groups
 * Bokenkotter is no classicist. The danger was in the middle third century, and had been dealt with the time of the Great Persecution; it revived at the end of the fourth century under quite different conditions, including a major military failure (by a Christian Emperor). Septentrionalis PMAnderson 21:28, 6 April 2010 (UTC)

p 39 no longer safe to go between cities, taxes high, larger armies - "It was very tempting to blame the Christians for all the

trouble, since their very existence could be regarded as a standing insult to the gods."

many believed that Christians were a true danger to the Empire at the time, only a few Christians in the West, but about 10% of the Eastern population was Christian, and were majority in a

few cities; most killed were in East

in 311, Galerius decreed that Christians could assemble again; his successor MAximinus Daia reversed that for a time

p 40 Constantine victorious in 312 and attributed that to Christian God (over Western part f the empire) by early 313 he had engineered a policy of complete religious tolerance

p 41 gradually, Constantine began imposing restrictions on pagan practices and "increasinly identified the interests of the state

with those of Christianity. Anxious to secure unity in the Church as well as the state, he did not hesitate to intervene in

Church affairs and tried to use the power of the state to end the Donatist schism in Africa"

324, Constantine becam emperor of whole Empire at this time, Arianism began to rise in Alexandria; when the different churches could not agree, Constantine gathered first

ecumenical council in 325 - 220 bishops at Nicaea; didn't solve the Arian problem

Constantine gave lots of gifts to the Church and gave money to build lots of very nice basilicas, even gave his Lateran

palace in Rome to the bishop of Rome

in 324 he moved Empire's capital to what is now Constantinople

Christian clergy got special priveleges - exempted from military service and forced level gave bishops's judicial decisions same authority as civil law Sunday, the day Christians assembled, became a state day of rest some sexual offenses, like adultery, prostitution, and concubinage, treated more harshley

p 42 laws to better treat slaves

"This alliance with the state profoundly influenced every aspect of the Church's thought and life."

p 43 Period from Constantine to Pope Leo the Great (who died 461) solidified a lot of Church traditions; Mass became standardized

and ritualized

p 44 With Christianity now the favored religion, millions of pagans converted - "some of their customs ineveitably crept into the

liturgy" - kiss as sign of reverence, use of candles, incense, etc

originally, celebrant got to improvise the words of the liturgy - as Church organized more centrrally, and as so many

different interpretations, conformity was imposed gradually - generally within the region;

pp 44-45 so we got 5 main liturgies - three in East (West-Syrian of Antioch, Coptic in Alexandria, Byzantine of Cosntantinople) and

two in West (GAllican in W. Europe and Romano-African, used in Roman and N Africa)

p 45 by the middle ages, 7 sacraments official

p 49 Arian controversy was over whether or not Jesus was human or divine or both

p 51 Council of Nicaea condemned Arianism almost unanimously - "They creed they issued is with some additions still recited at

Sunday Mass"

p 52 Constantine's son favored the ARians (this Constantius was sole ruler in 350) - at this time, with his help, ARianism again

began getting bigger in the East

p 53 finally, in 381, the Council of Constantinople affirmed that Jesus was divine and human - but now people began to question

Jesus's humanness

as more Christians in some areas, the organization had to change - concept of Parishes in late 3rd century, with presbyters

who assumed some functions bishop had done - presiding at Eucharist, preaching, etc at this time, clergy often married, had second jobs;

p 54 "Even before it became a necessity for the Western clergy, virginity and celibacy were held in high esteem." - but no notion

of celibate clergy until late 4th century

early Christianity had ascetic - people who lived in seclusion from world - often living with their families, but took vows,

recognized by Church, to renounce marriage - "from this practice it was a short step to monasticism"

in 3rd century, accounts of a few who would leave civilization and move to the desert to live in solitude,

p 56 "Roman law allowed abortion, imposed no criminal penalty for abandonment of a chil, and even permittted infanticide. IT was

only through Christian influence that these crimes were eventually outlawed."

p 57 as 4th century began, Christianity was a small minoryt of Roman citizens; was a majority by end of century; official religion

of Empire in 380

until 3rd century, most Christians were urban in lower or middle class - many in rural areas didn't speak Greek

by year 300, much of North Africa and Asia Minor was Christian

p 58 some of the response due to Diocletian - he reorganized the empire in a way that opened up a lot more high adminitrative

offices - which led to some social mobility as middle class people promoted to these = this meant Constantine "not hampered

by an entrenched aristocracy in key offices who were hostile to religious innovation"

many already Christian

p 59 Constantius ordered all pagan temples closed and wanted those who sacrified to the gods to be put to death - next emperor,

Julian (took office 360) was a pagan ; many Christian priest priveleges revoked he died in 363 without making much headway at reinserting paganism;

p 60 next emperor reversed him; barbarian armies were making larger gains against the Roman military "one of the most potent reasons, in fact, for the appeal of the Church to the masses was its magnificent system of charity...

Eventually it broadened out to include a whole organism of institutions, including orphanages, hospitals, inns for travelers,

foundling homes, and old-age homes."

p 62 380, emperor Theodosius procalimed Christianity the sole religion

p 64 Per Western Church, 4 men as the original doctors of the Church - Jerome, AMbrose, Augustine, Gregory the Great

p 78 Donatism well-established in Northern Africa

p 79 Donatists thought they were a truer church than what became mainstream Catholicism, because they expected their priests to be

held to a higher standard

in Jun 405, emperor Honorius published Edict of Unity -ordered Donatist Church dissolved

p 84 "During the fourth and fifth centuries, the papacy made continual headway in advancing its claims to a primacy over the whole

Church."

Pope Damasus likely the first to have asserted Rome's primacy due to actions of St Peter - council in 382

next Pope, Siricius, first claims righ to to make decisions on doctrine for everyone

p 85 not all bishops agreed with this, esp those in East. in West, African church very independent

Leo was first to "successfully asserted the supreme authority of the papacy"  he reigned 440-461 he formed doctrine of papal primacy

p 86 and got Western Emperor to help enforce it in gaul during Leo's reign, the Western Empire fell to the barbarians; in absence of strong leadership from political side, Leo made

treaties with some of the barbarian tribes to leave Rome alone

pp 87-88 continued to have issues with interpretation of doctrine, particularly Christ's humanity vs divinity; Constantinople vs Rome

p 91 the Chalcdeon council resulted in two schisms - Nestorians and Monophysites both broke off this council also passed a canon that said Constantinople on similar level as Rome

600-1300
p 98 beginning in 378, barbarian tribes attacking within boundaries of Empire frequently

Goths and Vandals were Arians, and often persecuted Catholics - confisating churches and prohibited them from meetings

Clovis in 486 took over Gallic territory north of the Loire; he was pagan, married a Catholic and (p 99) in 496 converted

p 99 "It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of this baptism"

catholic bishops in some towns opened the gates to Clovis's army, because they did not like the ARian rulers by 511, most of Gaul had been subjugated and was Catholic

pp 100 -101 under Gregory the Great (d 604), papacy became essentialyl rulers of central ITaly; papal primacy asserted over western

churches, more barbarians converted, and huge amounts of writing which "had a tremendous influence on the shaping of medieval

thought"

p 101 Eastern Roman EMpire couldn't stop the Lombards in the West from pillaging; Gregory began feeding the poor in Rome,

repairing walls, mustering troops; used diplomacy to get Lombards to not sack Rome; assisted in crafting a general peace -

this made him de facto ruler of central Italy

about Gregory: "While recognizing the rights of the other patriarchates - Antioch, Constantinople, Alexandria, and JErusalem- he vigorously

intervened in the life of the other churches of his own Western patriarchate"

Gregory sent Augustine to the ANgles and Saxons in Britain - the new church had a close relationship with Rome, and later the

Brits did much missionary work. those they converted (germany) also looked to Rome for guidance

p 103 breakdown of city life at end of Empire - now more agrarian and rural, which was difficult for Church in West, which had been

more confined to urban areas

monastaries located in countryside, and could convert the pagans in their areas "The monastic movement had its biggest impact on the newly converted Celtic lands of the Far West" because that region relied

on tribal rule, and Church organized by monastic, not episcopal lines

monasteries became centers of learning monks helped clear forests and get land cultivated "the monks completely remolded the peasant culture in the pspirit of the new religion. The sacred wells, sacred trees, and

sacred stones were still reverenced, only now they were associated with Christian saints."

until 500s, two main types of monastacism - Egyptian model, which was very ascetic and IRish type, which lacked strong

authority and "its excessive rigor as to mortification, its failure to specify a balanced schedule"

St. Benedict's Rule "reflects the Latin genius for organization"

p 104 St Benedict's type of monastary became "the universal form of Western monasticism. No single person, except Gregory the

Great, did more than Benedict to stabilize the barbarian peoples and plant the Church solidly in their midst"

p 106 as Roman Empire fell, in many cities people looked to the bishop "as their natural leader"; bishops then used church

resources to help care for people

Lombards kicked exarch out of Ravenna in 751, but by then Pope seen widely as "only effective ruler of non-Lombard Italy"

Lombards were Christian, but Pope did not want to allow them to be masters of all Italy. Turned to franks for several

reasons -- BOniface had reformed the Frankish church, and it had strong bonds with Rome now. Franks lived further away, and

hoped that they wouldn't try to dominate papacy, and Pepin had gotten papal sanction for his assuming the monarchy and thus

owed the pope a debt

Stephen II had a conference with Pepin in 754. Pepin said Pope could rule over Italy from Parma and MAntua to borders of

Apulia - "in effect, he contitutionally established a dominion of the Pope that was recognized in public law and possessed of

independent staus."

p 107 Pope made Pepin and his sons Charles and Carloman "Patricians of the Romans"

this formed the Papal states, that lasted until 1870, and also showed Carolingian bent to become organizers of Western

Christendom

Lombard leader refused to recognize this, and Pepin's army defeated him

Pepin's son Charles took over in 771 of all of Pepin's smpire; he began giving orderes to Pope and supervising the way the

states were administrered

Charles saw it as his duty to unite West under Christianity, and soon subdued most of Western Europe

p 108 by 800, Charlemagnes ruled from Atlantic to Southern Italy, Pyurenees to Elbe - very close to old boundaries of Western Roman

Empire, but his title was King of the Franks and Lombards and Patrician of the Romans

Pope Leo III accused of adultery and perjury in 800; claered himself only by publicly swearing on Gospels in presence of the

king

while Charles was there, Leo put a crown on his head and named him Emperor of the Romans, "crowned of God"

p 109 this was start of Holy Roman Emperor

p 111 Pope Gelasius, who died 496, had set forth a theory that Pope had "right to direct and orientate the Christian commonwealth

towards its final goal:eternal salvation. The Emperor's function was merely to promote the temporal welfare of its members

and to protect their corporate union." Charlemagne, however, exerted control over papacy after Charlemagne, popes tried to make it clear that Papcy was supreme, and soon Rome became the only place to be crowned

emperor

the prevailing idea was that state was an aspect of the Church, and popes could intervene if they chose

Pope John VIII asaid that popes had a right to choose the Emperor, not just crown them; in 875

p 112 that pope crowned Charles the Bald

Empire began to disintegrate - quarrelling of heirs, invasion by Magyars and Vikings

pp 112-113 papacy "became a slave to local Roman factions and the victim of political intrigue, losing all moral and spiritual

authority."

p 113 Empire revived in 10th century, at least in Germany/Italy Otto the Great sought the crown from the Pope and was crowned Feb 2, 962 by Pope John XII

"in reviving the Empire, Otto made great use of the Church, which he found to be the most effective force in the struggle

against disorder. He regarded the bishops as his most suitable collaborators by reason of their education and their lack of

children. This last fact was especially important, since one of the chief threats to monarchy in a feudal society was the

practice of families getting control of land and regarding it as their own independent domain and thus creating a rival

dynasty to the King."

that meant if bishop was in a special role and died, King could appoint the replacement.

p 114 "in spite of the papacy's degraded state" the Pope "was still regonized as the head of the Church"

within a year of taking over, Otta deposted the pope on treason charges and got a layman elected in his place. Then, Otto

said all popes must take an oath of allegiance to the Emperor or couldn't be consecrated - like this for next century

"This dominance over the Church by the lay power was true not only in Germany - everywhere in Europe the feudal potentates

wer applying more or less the same kind of system, using the Church as they saw fit." most bishops appointed by King and his

vassals

p 115 the land that went with the see was considered a fief, and the feudal obligations were to take precedence over the

ecclesiastical ones

newbishop usualyl paid a fee for his promotion (simony) Emperor Henry III had been putting good, spiritual men in high Church positions, and these men began protesting the idea that

laymen should have precedence over the Church

Cardinal Humbert asserted in Libri adversus simonacios that Church and State form one body (Christendom), and that if they

came into conflict, the spiritual authority must rule

pp 115-116 it was "nothing less than a claim for the Pope of total sovereignity over the world"

p 116 when Henry III died, leaving only a young child as his heir, the Curia began electing their own to the papacy

in 1059, Pope Nicholas II issued a decree excluding all but cardinals from electing the Pope, although the empreror could

still confirm the election

Pope Gregory VII believed pope had supreme authority - he said he could punish and depose rulers who were disobedient

p 117 Emperor Henry IV still thought he should have authority to choose bishops. In 1075, Gregory passed a decree against lay

investiture

Henry defied this by appointing an archbishop of Milan Gregory sent him an ultimatum - do what I say or I'll excommunicate you and maybe dpose you Henry reacted very poorly

p 118 so Gregory excommunicated him and declared him deposed when this happened, Henry's supporters stepped back and his enemies began rallying - they gave him 4 months to get back on

the pope's good side

Henry gave in

p 119 Gregory granted absolution; Henry's enemies deposed him anyway and elected a new emperor; the new emperor, Rudolf, appealed

to Pope to decide who was truly emperor. Henry wouldn't submit to a papal decision, so Gregory excommunicated him again and

deposed him

Henry defeated Rudolf, and Gregory seen as the agressor in trying to depose Henry Henry then tried to depose Gregory and besieged Rome

Gregory forced to flee

p 120 Pope Urban in 1095 called for a crusade - "With overwhelming enthusiasm, the lords of Europe rallied around the papal banner.

It was a striking demonstration of the power the Pope now exerted over the minds and hearts of men - a moral authority that no Emperor or King could hope to rival."

p 121 "Papal claims to sovereignty over the Church can be traced back to the fourth century; there is little evidence of any such

claim before then."

"During the first three centuries the organization of the Church developed along the lines of the Roman imperial

administration."

"graduated levels of autonomy" - metropolitan churches were in capitals of the provinces, some became suprametropolitan or

primatial meant lots of need to meet in council to figure out what to do

p 122 Pope Leo the Great "saw the Church as a pyramid, with its sides converging upon Rome as its apex - a system quite at odds

with teh AFrican and Eastern conciliar concept."

"Numerous historical forces converged to establish the Pope in a position of absolute control over the Western Church"
 * no imperial power over central Italy, so bishop of Rome filled political vaccuum
 * papal alliance with Franks unified West around Rome
 * African Church disappeared under Moslem advance - this was the only Latin Church that fought pretty hard against Rome

authority
 * Roman was leader on Anglo-Saxon missions, which tied England closely to Rome; then the Anglo-Saxons converted a lot of what

is now Germany, and these areas now tied to Rome

sign of advance of papal power - Rome alone allowed to set up new sees under Charlemagne; before it was done by a council

"Various legends also made their contribution to the cause. One of these - the cult of Peter as the gatekeeper of heaven -

appeared at this time."

pp 122-123 "Another one [legend -k] that had great currency in the early Middle Ages attributed the actual foundation of the principal

Western churches to the Roman See."

p 123 "but most influential of all was the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, which were drawn up around 850 in the chancery of a Franksih

bishop. This collection contained a clever mixture of forged and authentic papal and conciliar documents. It falsified the

history of papal relations with the other churches by tracing papal authority over them back to the earliest period."

Nicholas I (d 867) used these documents to get the papacy as the absolute power over the Church - deposed several bishops,

but then breakdow of the empire and papacy under control of Roman nobility

idea of papal supremacy back again under LEo IX (1048-1054) - traveled a lot and held lots of council that said bishops have

to be elected by clergy and people, and that railed against simony and clerical marriage

p 124 Gregory, in Dictatus papae asserted that "the Roman church has never erred and never will err till the end of time; the Roman

Church was founded by Christ alone..." and that if clergy appealed to papal courts, were immune from prosecution by civil

authorities

p 127 example of papacy power over monarchs - Thomas Beckett and Henry II "Henry saved his crown only by submitting to the papal envoys and swearing obedience to alexander III and promising to

abrogate all his infringements on the authority of the Church and the Pope."

another example: Innocent III "advanced the concept of papal sovereignty by claiming that the temporal power itself was

derived from the Pope." 'By his interventions in the political affairs of Europe he made himself the arbiter of its destiny"

- "probably one of the most powerful rulers in its history." its is Europe

Philip and Otto both wanted to be emperor; Innocent chose Otto, who promised to keep papal stated independent;  Otto became

emperor after assassin killed Philip

p 128 Otto reneged on his promise. Pope excommunicated him and crowned Frederick II as the new emperor, Frederick gave Pope lots

of authority over Church in Germany war between Otta and Frederick - Frederick won

p 129 England's King John wouldn't recognize a bishop Innocent had appointed, Innocent placed England under interdict - no

religious services except baptisms and funerals; this lasted 6 years - at the time, John began confiscating Church property Innocent in 1213 made alliance with France to invade England; John submitted and made ENgland a feudal vcassal to Pope

p 130 Innocent also placed France under an interdict when King Philip Augustus set aside his wife; interdict lifted when he agreed

to recognize Ingeborg as the queen

in Innocent's time, canon law "was the most civilized law of the age and vitally influenced the quality of medieval

civilization."

p 131 Innocent "was the first Pope to apply force on a considerable scale tos uppress religious opinions." emperors had done so

"with little opposition from the Fathers of the Church" although death penalty usually discouraged for heresy

factors in the change in attitude:
 * Old Testament "uncritically and unhistorically interpreted"
 * revival of Roman Law (where heresy did have death, although this "rarely if ever used in Roman times")
 * "the fact that with the emergency of Christendom the Church had become an all-inclusive society comparable to the state and

in its totality scarcely distinguishable from it, so that heretics were viewed as a menace to the social order."

First used against Cathari

p 132 crusade proclaimed against the Albigenses - armies crushed the heretics at this point, Inquisition orginated - Pope appointed a tribunal to find heretics 1233 Gregory IX organized this tribunal into permanent inquisitors

"Though few of its members were the fanatics and sadists found in lurid anticlerical accounts of the Inquisition, still the

system itself offers a disconcerting commentary on medieval standards of justice. Its victims were accused on the basis of

anonymous denunciations; they were not allowed witnesses in their favor nor given counsel; the innocent as well as the guilty

were often forced to confess by the use of brutal torture, which was definitively prescribed in the bull of Innocent IV of

1252, Ad extirpanda."

p 133 "by their pre-eminent interest in the formulation and enforcement of law, these lawyer Popes contributed much to the

fundamental order of medieval society and put the modern world very much in their debt,"

p 134 patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem seized by Moslem armies, leaving Constantinople the head in the East

iconoclasm in the East in the 8th century brought conflict temporary east-wEst schism in9th century over Photius

p 135 Photian schism in 858 was temporary

p 136 there were doctrinal disputes between East and West - filioque clause was one of the last "involved in the dispute was an even more basic issue, however: the nature of ecclesiastical and papal authority." - East

believed ecumenical councils were the appropriate way to make doctrine

p 140 "by the year of Gregory's death in 1085, relations between Eastern and Western Christendom were extemely cold. Still there

was as yet no actual schism."

"and so when Urban called for a crusade at Clermont in 1095, one of his motives was to bring help to the beleagured Eastern

Christians, It would help to dissipate past ill feelings and lead them to recognize the Pope as the leader of all

Christendom."

"But instead, the effect of the crusades was just the opposite. They proved disastrous to the cause of Christian unity." "Though it is impossible to give an exact date for the beginning of the schism, it was the Fourth Crusade (1202-04) that

finally ended all hopes of reunification."

p 141 sack of Constantinople, where even churches were pillaged, was just about the final straw

p 142 "Medieval Christendom's boundaries continued to grow until the fourteenth century."
 * 6th/7th centuries - Franks, Lombards, Angles, Saxons, Visigoths
 * 7th/8th - Frisian and Hessian Germans, Saxons
 * 9th, 10th, 11th - northern Germans and western Slavs
 * 13/14 - Baltic peoples

Cyril (d. 869) "invented the Slavonic alphabet by combining Greek letters with some new ones in order to provide the Slavs

with a liturgical language." (see Old Church Slavonic)

p 143 at time of Innocent III, Christians estimated to be about 70 million people; 400 dioceses - "each ruled by a bishop or

archbishop who was canonically subject to the Pope, although often he was more an agent of the King." bishops were feudal overlord b/c Church owned land; often a judge and legislator; often member of powerful family in his

region

lay education rare in Middle Ages, so Kings usually used clergy in their staff

p 144 many bishops not even ordained clergy until became a bishop

bishops had courts of law, where they had jurisdiction over moral behavior, marriage, and last testaments

each diocese subdivided into parishes

p 145 1139, Second Lateran Council declared all clerical marriages null, but laws likely not that effective

although "infractions of the law by bishops seemed to have been compratively rare."

during early Middle Ages mass began to move away from its original form as for whole community to become something the priest

did while everyone else watched

p 146 "only monks, nuns, and priests received communion frequently. The main object of the layman in coming to Mass was to see the

consecrated wager."

p 147 the monastaries, like the rest of the clergy, had not been that nice during the 8th century; Cluny began the process of

reform in the 10th century, and this model spread to other places in Europe

Cluny reform was first concept of a monastic "order" - rather than have each monastery be independent and report only to a

bishop or the pope, monasteries were now grouped together under a centralized authority, and no longer subject to the bishop

by 1100, the Cluny order had 2000 abbeys, priories, and cells

"The Cluny reform made an important contribution to the progress of spirituality in the medieval Church. It was also an

outstanding champion of the papal monarchy and was no doubt the chief spiritual power behind the Gregorian reform and its

struggle for the liberation of the Church from control by the laity."

p 149 mendicant orders arose in 13th century - friars who would uphold monastic ideals while staying in the world to convert it

at this time, population again shifting towards towns instead of countryside; mendicant orders were useful for getting to the

people now in the towns; originated by St Francis of Assisi

p 151 other mendicant orders - Dominicans, Carmelites, Augustinians medicants were directly responsible to Pope

p 152 "Bishops, priests, monks, friars, nun, they were by and large the most educated, the most cultivated, and the most respected

members of medieval society during the period of the Church's ascendancy, and they constituted a much larger percentage of

the population than they do today. Their large number enabled the Church to dedicate itself to a wide range of social

services" - hospitals, not just for sick, but also fed and housed the poor

"In harmony with the Church's actual ascendancy over society, its theologians and philosophers developed a social theory that

envisaged the whole social order as an organic hierarchy whereby all man's secular activities were ordained to his religious

and supernatural goals as means to an end." Each person assigned to a class by God, and each class was essential for all of

society to function - "This theory left little room for ideas of change or social reform; the social condition was simply a

given."

pp 152-153 Things like violence, inequality, war, poverty, sefdom, etc were because of sin and were permanent - all we could was

alleviate suffering of individuals

p 153 Church saw making money as bad - avarice; usury outlawed by Church Church "claimed marriage, the family, and all that pertained to it as its very special province" - marriage could not be

dissolved, abortion and infanticide wrong and should be severely punished "It insisted on the human rights and dignity of women, although unfortunately its celibate clergy often lapsed into an almost

hysterical disdain for everything feminine."

the Church "aspires to completely dominate a whole culture" during Middle ages

p 154 the Crusades "remained a largely papal enterprise" - not just the First Crusade

Urban wanted to rescue the Holy Land from the Moslems

p 155
 * Normans, Italians, and French had already effectively seized Western Mediterranean from the Moslem forces, now ready to do

the same in the East
 * stories that Christian pilgrims in JErusalem had been ill=treated
 * Eastern Emperor, Alexius, did ask Urban for help in getting back Byzantine territory in Asia Minor - Urban saw an

opportunity to regain control of Eastern churches

p 156 "There is no doubt, however, that the Crusades contributed much to the developments of the time: the rise of commerce and

towns, the growing sense of nationality, the expansion of intellectual horizons, and the increase in the prestige of the

papacy. But in none of these instances was the influence decisive."