User:Katangais/sandbox/AML

The Panhard AML (Auto Mitrailleuse Légère, or "Light Armoured Car") is a French-designed armoured car which was produced and widely exported during the Cold War. Development of the AML commenced in 1957 in response to a requirement issued by the French Army for a purpose-built wheeled armoured vehicle for use in counter-insurgency operations. The French general staff had long favoured armoured cars for security duties in areas of unrest throughout France's colonial empire, especially in Algeria. The Daimler Ferret was initially adopted for this role during the 1950s; however, French troops found it inadequately armed and sought a domestic vehicle of similar size, but with a heavier armament and explicitly designed for warfare in the rugged Algerian terrain. Several domestic manufacturers were approached to design and build prototypes, including Panhard, which completed its first prototype in 1957. The prototype was designated the Type 242 and incorporated a helical spring suspension and drive shaft concept from the much larger Panhard EBR. Although externally similar in many respects to the Ferret, it carried a much larger turret armed with a 60mm breech-loading mortar and twin co-axial machine guns.

After a series of detail improvements, a more definitive prototype appeared in 1959 and was officially designated the Type 245. It was accepted for service as the Panhard AML-60 and the first pre-production vehicles were completed that year. In April 1959, the first AMLs were delivered to the French Army. A second turreted variant, carrying a 90mm gun, was also tested for export purposes and later ordered by the French Army as the Panhard AML-90. At the time of its introduction, the AML-90 was the most heavily armed vehicle of its size and weight class in military service. Although it remained comparable in dimensions to the Ferret and other compact scout cars, it possessed enough firepower to rival contemporary medium tanks.

The end of the Algerian War led to a reduction in French military orders, compelling Panhard to look increasingly to export territories for new contracts. It soon found a dependable market for the AML among newly emerging postcolonial states, especially in Africa, where the AML's low cost and usefulness in both the internal security and semi-conventional role was appreciated. Other national armies favoured the type for logistical reasons; most armoured cars with the same combination of qualities were far more technically complex and maintenance-intensive than the AML. In nearly three decades of continuous production, well over 4,000 AMLs were manufactured, and the vehicle entered service on five continents. It had become familiar as a scout car utilised for conventional reconnaissance purposes, as an internal security vehicle, as an improvised tank destroyer or air defence platform, and in dozens of specialist roles. The versatility of the AML design allowed its basic concept to be considerably refined and developed into multiple variants, including the related Eland and M3 derivatives.

Background
Since 1904, Panhard had been a respected and highly successful manufacturer of military vehicles for the French Army. During the early twentieth century, it had produced the first light gun carriers and improvised armoured cars to be deployed by French forces during the French conquest of Morocco. In the 1920s Panhard produced its first dedicated armoured car to be built on a purpose-built chassis: the Auto Mitrailleuse de Decouverte (AMD) in two variants, the AMD-165 and the AMD-175. These vehicles were primarily used by colonial units engaged in counter-insurgency operations in North Africa and the Middle East, and were designed for the desert climate. During the early 1930s, it incorporated lessons from the flaws of its previous designs into a new armoured car, known as the AMD-178, also known simply as the Panhard 178. The engineering team for the AMD-178 programme was led by Louis Delagarde, a former French tank crewman who had served in World War I and was also instrumental in designing the later AML. Consequently, the AMD-178 had several characteristics which later factored heavily into the design of the AML: it was a highly mobile four-wheel drive vehicle with a rear-mounted engine compartment and a sloped armoured hull angled to deflect small arms fire. It was also heavily armed for an armoured car in that era; the AMD-178 carried a 25mm gun capable of firing anti-tank shells, coupled with a co-axial machine gun, all mounted in a fully enclosed turret. Production continued throughout the 1940s uninterrupted by World War II; throughout that conflict, Panhard supplied AMD-178s to the Armistice Army, the Wehrmacht, and latterly, the Free French Army.

Panhard had started design work on a heavy armoured car to replace or complement the AMD-178 in French Army service in the prewar era. While the AMD-178 was useful for the colonial forces, it was hoped that a larger and more heavily armed vehicle would become the mainstay of French armoured reconnaissance units in Europe. This project was put on hold during and immediately after the war; by the end of that conflict the French government's priorities had changed to producing as many AMD-178s as possible while adopting the preexisting American-built M8 Greyhound in lieu of any domestic heavy armoured car. While the M8's 37mm gun was considered inadequate by French strategists for dealing with hostile armour, it was an an effective weapon for providing direct fire support to the infantry. Shortly after hostilities in Europe ceased, however, the government announced that the programme for developing a heavy armoured car to replace the M8 would continue. It wanted a vehicle that was more heavily armed and armoured.

During World War II, the French Army and their Free French successors used a wide variety of vehicles for reconnaissance duties, ranging from the compact Laffly S15 to the Panhard 178, which could mount the same 75 mm armament as contemporary heavy tanks, and multi-wheeled designs such as the Type 201. After the war it became less desirable to maintain this plethora of armoured cars. In July 1945 Paris issued a requirement for a postwar design combining those features of previous assets – especially the Type 201 – that had shown potential both during and prior to the Battle of France. This led to the 8x8 Panhard EBR (Type 212) which entered service in 1950. Similarly, in 1956 the French Ministry of Defense was persuaded to commission a replacement for the Daimler Ferret scout car. Also manufactured by Panhard, the successor was the AML (Type 245) which entered service in 1961.

As with much postwar hardware based on the experience of subsequent colonial theatres, the AML was recognized for its outstanding ruggedness, dependability, firepower-to-weight ratio, and adaptability to the numerous minor conflicts waged since 1945. This reputation has led to export success in over forty countries, Africa being one of its biggest markets.

Development


The Panhard AML was birthed as a private venture by the Société de Constructions Panhard et Levassor, a military subsidiary of PSA Peugeot Citroën. It was derived in part from the Daimler Ferret, offering important similarities in external design. The first prototype appeared in 1959 and the vehicle was put into production in 1960, with more than 4,000 examples constructed by the time production ended.

In the late 1950s, the French Army successfully operated a number of Ferret scout cars in Algeria. Impressive as they were from a conventional standpoint, the rest of France's existing light armour—such as the Panhard EBR and M8 Greyhound—were not suitably equipped for counter-insurgency; battles of the Algerian War often involved short, sharp, skirmishes which required indirect fire support weapons such as mortars rather than solid shot and shell. In addition, the North African conditions demanded a lighter, less sophisticated, vehicle which would be simpler to maintain and operate. As an interim measure France had purchased two hundred Ferrets from the United Kingdom. These were light enough but carried only a single general-purpose machine gun, which was inadequate for offensive purposes. Nevertheless, they were sufficiently successful that there was a possibility of producing the Ferret under licence in France. However, Saviem, Berliet, and Panhard petitioned for bidding on a home-grown vehicle, and in 1956 the Ministère de la Défense issued specifications for an indigenous wheeled armoured car of similar dimensions and layout to the Ferret but mounting a breech-loading mortar. By 1959, this had emerged as the Auto Mitrailleuse Légère, designated Model 245 "B" by Panhard. Early prototypes were completed in mid-1959 and by the end of 1961 at least one regiment in Algeria was receiving them. The AML was equipped with a 60mm Brandt gun-mortar and two medium MAS AA-52 NF-1 machine guns. Until Panhard's acquisition by Citroën later in the 1960s, it was manufactured at a single plant near the Porte de Choisy in the 13th arrondissement of Paris.

The AML was immediately successful, but as the Algerian conflict diminished so did the need for a light mortar carrier deployed in anti-guerrilla operations. A more primary concern was the conventional threat posed by Soviet airborne fighting vehicles in the event of a Warsaw Pact invasion. Meanwhile, South Africa, an AML customer which had considered adopting the British Alvis Saladin, also charged Panhard technicians to look into the development of an AML variant with equal or superior fire support capability. This and the adoption of a highly effective 90 mm rifled cannon led to all new AML-245 "C"s being refitted with the H-90 turret sporting the new gun. It fired fin-stabilised, shaped charge, projectiles boasting a muzzle velocity of 760 m/s and more than capable of penetrating 320 mm of rolled homogeneous armour. In consequence, the later AMLs could even engage main battle tanks. In addition to its high explosive anti-tank (HEAT) shells the H-90 also carries fin-stabilised high-explosive (HE) projectiles, the total number of rounds stored being 20, compared with the 53 of the original 60 mm mortar version.

To provide a complete family of wheeled armoured cars, Panhard used AML components to engineer a small personnel carrier, the Véhicule Transport de Troupes, better known as the Panhard M3. The M3 consisted of a boxy, all-welded, hull with an engine relocated behind the driver in order to provide a large troop compartment at its rear. Its wheelbase was also increased from the AML's 2.5m to a higher 2.7m. and the track from 1.62 to 2.5m. In spite of this, maintenance alongside the AML fleet is rather simplified, given that both vehicles share a 95% interchangeability in automotive parts. The export success of the AML and M3 led directly to the development of the Panhard ERC 90 Sagaie and Panhard VCR, respectively, which were six-wheeled and could carry a wider range of heavy weapon systems.

Mass production of the AML likely ceased at some point prior to the early 1980s. However, AMLs continued to be sold from French Army surplus stocks as late as 1999, when the final export orders were placed by Yemen and Tunisia. They were also marketed by a number of other second-hand suppliers, including South Africa, Israel, and Saudi Arabia.

Specifications
Fitted with coil spring suspension and drum brakes, the AML lacks hydraulic assist on either brakes or steering; only front wheels steer. Consequently, the steering wheel requires considerable strength to turn while the vehicle is in motion—while stationary it remains effectively locked. Much like the Ferret, rear wheel drive is transmitted directly to epicyclic hub reduction gears, also known as bevel boxes. The motor and gearbox have been harnessed via a centrifugal clutch with electromagnetic control, eliminating the need for a clutch pedal. This type of clutch is automatically engaged by gripping the knob of the gearshift lever, which is located behind the driver's seat in the hull floor. The gearbox assembly consists of two separate gearboxes, one for high and the other for low gear. The low-range gearbox is designed for off-road use and has a reverse gear and a top gear, while the high-range box is for operation on roads and has three low gears and one overdrive. There is a hydraulic dual-circuit handbrake operating on the gearbox output shaft.

An AML's crankshaft is carried in three ball bearings to reduce motor friction. Powerplant design was inspired by the Panhard EBR and incorporates an air-cooled 1.99 litre four cylinder engine developing 67 kW (90 hp). The Panhard engine was somewhat underpowered for the five to six tonne armoured car, and remained prone to mechanical failure in humid climates. Under temperate conditions it was capable of providing good operational service up to 26,000 kilometres before needing replacement. AMLs may also be fitted with a variety of liquid-cooled engines, although as demonstrated by its Eland Mk7 counterpart this requires a costly reconstruction of the rear hull to accommodate the new cooling apparatus.

AML hulls are assembled from only 13 welded pieces, with a driver seated at the front of the hull and the turret to his immediate rear. Above both doors the hull widens into a circular flange onto which the turret is bolted. This makes the turret basket extremely cramped, and little space is available above an AML-90's turret ring due to the massive gun breech and somewhat haphazard ammunition stowage. There are optical ring sights in front of both turret seats for quick laying of the main armament. AML turrets have a two-man crew, with the commander seated on the left and the gunner on the right. Depending on the variant, either may operate the roof-mounted searchlight. Seven periscopes are provided for the turret crew and three for the AML's driver. One of the three driving periscopes may be substituted with an infrared or image intensification periscope for night operations.

On either side of the hull below the turret ring is an access door, one for the driver on the right and one intended for emergency purposes on the left. The left hull door, on which a spare wheel and tyre or fuel cans may be mounted, opens to the rear while the right hull door opens to the front. The engine housing at the rear of the hull is accessed through two access panels, and is insulated from the crew compartment by a removable bulkhead. Two sand channels resembling those on the Ferret are bolted to the hull front for crossing ditches and other obstacles.

The AML uses nitrogen inner tubes (in this case Hutchinson V.P.-P.V.s) adopted from the EBR, providing run flat capability on 41 cm (16 in.)-diameter wheels; its 280 mm (11 in.) wide Michelin tyres can be deflated to reduce ground pressure to as low as 70 to 110 kPa. These have been replaced in some Anglophone armies by the Dunlop Trak Grips also favoured in Bedford and Alvis military vehicles.

Operators
''This section is about operators of the Panhard AML. For operators of the South African variant, see Eland Mk7.''



Current operators

 * 🇩🇿 Algeria: 54 AML-60
 * 🇦🇷 Argentina: 50 AML-90
 * 🇧🇭 Bahrain: 23 AML-90; 22 operational.
 * 🇧🇦 Bosnia and Herzegovina: 10 AML-90
 * 🇧🇫 Burkina Faso: 15
 * 🇧🇮 Burundi: 30
 * 🇨🇲 Cameroon: 31; ex-Bosnian Army
 * 🇹🇩 Chad: 85; likely replaced by the Eland
 * 🇨🇮 Côte d'Ivoire: 20
 * Democratic Republic of the Congo
 * 🇩🇯 Djibouti: 24; 20 operational.
 * 🇬🇦 Gabon: 18
 * 🇪🇨 Ecuador: 27
 * 🇸🇻 El Salvador: 12 AML-90; 10 operational.
 * 🇮🇶 Iraq: 300; 10 operational.
 * 🇰🇪 Kenya: 82; refurbished by an Israeli firm in 2007.
 * 🇱🇧 Lebanon: 74; 45 operational.
 * 🇱🇸 Lesotho: 6 AML-90; 4 operational.
 * 🇲🇲 Myanmar: 50 AML-90
 * 🇲🇷 Mauritania: 60, 39 AML-90 and 20 AML-60
 * 🇲🇦 Morocco: 210; 175 operational.
 * 🇳🇪 Niger: 36
 * 🇳🇬 Nigeria: 137
 * 🇵🇰 Pakistan: 5 AML 60-20
 * 🇷🇼 Rwanda: 15
 * Sahrawi Republic
 * 🇸🇦 Saudi Arabia: 300, 190 AML-90 and 110 AML-60; 235 operational.
 * 🇸🇳 Senegal: 54
 * 🇸🇴 Somalia: 15 AML-90
 * Somaliland
 * 🇸🇩 Sudan: 6 AML-90; 5 operational.
 * 🇹🇬 Togo: 10
 * 🇹🇳 Tunisia: 18
 * 🇦🇪 United Arab Emirates: 90 AML-90
 * 🇻🇪 Venezuela: 10
 * 🇾🇪 Yemen: 185; 95 operational.

Former operators

 * Flag of Mourabitoun.svg Al-Mourabitoun: Inherited from the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF).
 * Amal Movement: Inherited from the LAF.
 * 🇦🇴 Angola: Likely captured from Portugal.
 * Biafra: Some captured from Nigeria.
 * Flag of Jihad.svg Boko Haram: AML-60 variant; likely captured from Nigeria.
 * 🇰🇭 Cambodia: 15 AML-60s in service between 1965 and 1975. Saw service during the Cambodian Civil War.
 * FLEC: At least 2 AML-60; likely acquired from Zaire
 * FNLA: 1 AML-90; now on display at the Museu das Forças Armadas, Luanda.
 * 🇪🇬 Egypt
 * 🇪🇹 Ethiopia 56 AML-60
 * 🇫🇷 France: 905
 * People's Republic of Kampuchea: 2 AML-60s in service during the early 1980s.
 * FNLC: 1 AML-60, some AML-90s
 * 🇮🇪 Ireland: 18 AML-20, 15 AML-90
 * 🇮🇱 Israel: 29 AML-90
 * Lebanese Forces: 12 AML-90 inherited from the LAF.
 * 🇱🇾 Libya: 20 AML-90
 * 🇲🇾 Malaysia: 140 AML-60 and AML-90s
 * 🇵🇹 Portugal: 50 AML-60
 * Flag of the Progressive Socialist Party.svg Progressive Socialist Party/People's Liberation Army: Inherited from the LAF.
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa: 100 AMLs procured in 1962, swiftly replaced by Eland Mk2.
 * 🇪🇸 Spain: 140 AML-60 and AML-90s
 * UNITA: 4 AMLs acquired clandestinely through Zaire; saw service during the Angolan Civil War.
 * Zaire: 155, 95 AML-60 and 60 AML-90

Notes and citations

 * Notes


 * Citations