User:Kdean12/sandbox

Choking
Choking under pressure decreases the standard level of athletic performance, of an athlete when they may be at their peak performance.

Symptoms of choking may include, tightening up of the muscles, an increase level of anxiety and a decrease in self-confidence. Choking can leave an athlete feeling embarrassed or frustrated.

Causes
Choking is caused when an athlete becomes distracted, their thoughts become negative or unproductive and when they worry about things they cannot control. Anxiety is built up from negative self-talk and doubt which leads to choking.

Self-Focus Theory
Predicts, a decrease in performance is due to attention being shifted to movement execution. Any combination of factors that increase the importance of performing is considered performance pressure. Baumeister’s self-focus theory suggests responding to performance pressure can lead to an increase in self-consciousness which then results in choking. There is more focus on the motor components of performance, consciously controlling movements with step-by-step control.

Processing Efficiency Theory (PET)
Anxiety causes a shift in an athlete’s attention towards thought of performance consequences and failure. An increase in worry decreases attention resources. According to PET athletes put extra effort into their performance when under pressure, to eliminate negative performance. Eysenck and Calvo found processing efficiency is effected by negative anxiety more than performance effectiveness. Efficiency being the relationship between the quality of task performance and the effort spent in task performance.

Attentional Control Theory (ACT)
Eysenck and Calvo developed ACT an extension to PET, hypothesizing an individual shifts attention to irrelevant stimuli. Stress and pressure cause an increase in the stimulus-driven system and a decrease in the goal-directed system. Disruption of balance between these two systems causes the individual to respond to salient stimuli rather than focusing on current goals. ACT identifies the basic central executive functions inhibition and shifting, which are affected by anxiety. Inhibition is the ability to minimize distractions caused from irrelevant stimuli. Shifting requires adapting to changes in attentional control. Shifting back and forth between mental sets due to task demands.

Attentional Threshold Model
According to the attentional threshold model, a performance decrement is caused by exceeded threshold of attentional capacity. This model combines both the self-focus models and the distraction models. The combination of worry and self-focus together causes a decrease in performance. Attentional Threshold Model suggests that choking is a complex process involving cognitive, emotional and attentional factors.

Contributing Factors
Factors of choking may include, individual responsibility, expectations, poor preparation, self-confidence, physical/mental errors, important games/moments and opponent’s actions.

Fear of Negative Evaluation
FNE is a psychological characteristic that increases anxiety under high pressure. Creates apprehension about others evaluations or expectations of oneself. FNE is similar to motive to avoid failure (MaF). The need to avoid negative evaluation from others, avoid mistakes and avoid negative comparison to other players.

Presence of an audience
The presence of parents, coaches, media or scouts can increase pressure leading to choking. An athlete wants to perform their best while being observed and trying not to make any mistakes increases the amount of pressure they are under.

Self-Confidence
Being over-confident can cause negativity to take over quickly. Not expecting something negative to happen can cause a choke. Having low self-confidence leads to more mistakes, because you do not think you can do anything.

A study done by Wang, Marchant, Morris and Gibbs (2004) found poor performance associated with high self-conscious individuals. An individual with high self-consciousness focuses their attention to thoughts relating to the task (ie, “did I step right?”) and to outside concerns (ie, “will people laugh if I mess up?”). Individuals with low self-consciousness can direct their attention outward or inward because self-concerns do not dominate their thinking.

Choking and Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning
According to IZOF introduced by Yuri L. Hanin, an individual’s best performance is when their anxiety level is in a certain zone of optimal state of anxiety or affect. Too much or too little anxiety can lead to performance decrement. Determining athletes’ optimal prestart state anxiety level leads to achieving and maintaining that level throughout the performance.

Choking can occur if the athlete is outside their anxiety zone. IZOF helps identify an athletes anxiety zone creating a balance between arousal and somatic anxiety. Low arousal can lead to broad attention taking in irrelevant and relevant cues. High arousal can create low attention causing important cues being missed.
 * For example a lacrosse goalie with low arousal may focus more on whether or not a college scout is watching them, rather than focusing on the opponent who is about to score on them. A lacrosse goalie with high arousal may focus more on the opponents stick position instead of the opponents body position, causing them to step in the wrong direction.

How to prevent choking
Having control over the situation and control over the anxiety will prevent choking. Keeping a calm mind and being in the right frame of mind before, during and after performance is key.

Several processes to help control emotion and focus:
 * Stay present - think about what needs to happen at that very moment. Not about what has happened or what might happen.
 * Control breathing and energy - provides a sense of control. Slowing down breathing and reducing muscle tension will allow the athlete to regain control of performance.
 * Let go of negative thoughts - move on without reacting to the negative thoughts.

Cognitive Strategies:

The use of imagery to picture previous successes will maintain composure and generate specific emotions. Close your eyes and breath easy while using menal imagery to visualize yourself performing well. Self-talk is used to stimulate a more positive perception towards the anxiety and pressure. For example "I played well in the last quarter of the game". positive self-statements can also be used with relaxation training to prevent choking. The cognitive strategy self-analysis writing down your emotions and reactions in a game-by-game journal will help one become aware of the emotions present. Self-analysis will provide awareness on how to act towards stimuli.

Pre Performance Routine (PPR):

Engaging in a sequence of task-relevant thoughts and actions prior to performance. PPR helps minimize attention to irrelevant info and redirects attention to task-relevant cues. (ex: going to the batting cages before a game or completely the same stretch sequence before performance)

What to consider when establishing a routine:
 * It will take time to establish itself
 * Have consistent behavior
 * Make sure it is task specific
 * Your routine is individual to you

Practicing under high levels of anxiety:

Training under high levels of anxiety provides acclimatization to anxiety. A study done by Oudejans and Pijpers (2010) found practicing under high levels of anxiety decreases processing efficiency as a result of inhibiting distractions from irrelevant information. During practice more efficient coping strategies used to deal with pressure are developed.