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Abdul Hamid II, also known as Sultan Abdul Hamid, was a Turkish leader. He was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1876 until his deposition in 1909.

The farthest-reaching reforms were in education, with many professional schools established in fields such as law, arts, trades, civil engineering, veterinary medicine, customs, farming, and linguistics, along with the first local modern law school in 1898. A network of primary, secondary, and military schools extended throughout the Empire. German firms played a major role in developing the Empire's railway and telegraph systems.

Under similar conditions, minorities started organizing their own national liberation movements. Armenians especially suffered from massacres and pogroms at the hands of the Hamidiye regiments. Of the many assassination attempts during Abdul Hamid's reign, one of the most famous is the Armenian Revolutionary Federation's Yıldız assassination attempt of 1905. In 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress forced him to recall parliament and reinstate the constitution in the Young Turk Revolution. Abdul Hamid II attempted to reassert his absolutism a year later, resulting in his deposition by pro-constitutionalist forces in the 31 March incident, though the role he played in events is disputed.

Ottoman—Greece War
Ottoman Greece War was fought between the Ottomans and Greeks.

Opposition to Zionism
Sultan held a firm opposition to Zionism during his reign from 1876 to 1909. This opposition stemmed from various factors, including his concerns for the welfare and rights of the Muslim population in Palestine, as well as his commitment to maintaining the sovereignty and integrity of the Ottoman Empire. One of the primary reasons for Sultan Abdul Hamid's opposition to Zionism was his deep-rooted commitment to the Islamic heritage and the protection of Muslim interests. He viewed Palestine as an integral part of the Islamic world and believed that the establishment of a Jewish homeland would not only threaten the rights of Muslims but also undermine the centuries-old presence of the Ottoman Empire in the region.

Furthermore, Sultan Abdul Hamid perceived Zionism as a threat to the stability and unity of the Ottoman Empire. He feared that the influx of Jewish settlers and the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine would lead to political and social upheaval. The Sultan sought to maintain control over his diverse empire and preserve the delicate balance of power among different religious and ethnic groups. Another factor influencing Sultan Abdul Hamid's opposition to Zionism was his desire to protect the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire. At a time when the empire faced growing challenges and territorial losses, the Sultan sought to safeguard Ottoman lands, including Palestine, from outside influences and encroachments. He saw Zionism as an attempt to erode the empire's sovereignty and potentially pave the way for further territorial disintegration.

Sultan Abdul Hamid's opposition to Zionism was also driven by geopolitical considerations. He was aware of the European powers' growing interest in the region and their potential support for Zionist aspirations. The Sultan sought to resist external interference and safeguard Ottoman interests by rejecting the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. In response to the Zionist movement, Sultan Abdul Hamid implemented various measures to limit Jewish immigration and settlement in Palestine. He imposed restrictions on land sales to Jews and implemented policies to maintain the predominantly Muslim character of the region. These measures were aimed at preserving the status quo and preventing any significant demographic or political changes.

Deposition
See also: 31 March Incident and Adana massacre

Abdul Hamid's new attitude did not save him from the suspicion of intriguing with the state's powerful reactionary elements, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude toward the counter-revolution of 13 April 1909 known as the 31 March Incident, when an insurrection of the soldiers backed by a conservative upheaval in some parts of the military in the capital overthrew Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha's government. With the Young Turks driven out of the capital, Abdul Hamid appointed Ahmet Tevfik Pasha in his place, and once again suspended the constitution and shuttered the parliament. But the Sultan controlled only Constantinople, while the Young Turks were still influential in the rest of the army and provinces. The CUP appealed to Mahmud Shevket Pasha to restore the status quo. Shevket Pasha organized an ad hoc formation known as the Action Army, which marched on Constantinople. Şevket Pasha's chief of staff was captain Mustafa Kemal. The Action Army stopped first in Aya Stefanos, and negotiated with the rival government established by deputies who escaped from the capital, which was led by Mehmed Talat. It was secretly decided there that Abdul Hamid must be deposed. When the Action Army entered Istanbul, a fatwa was issued condemning Abdul Hamid, and the parliament voted to dethrone him. On 27 April, Abdul Hamid's half-brother Reshad Efendi was proclaimed as Sultan Mehmed V. The Sultan's countercoup, which had appealed to conservative Islamists against the Young Turks' liberal reforms, resulted in the massacre of tens of thousands of Christian Armenians in the Adana province, known as the Adana massacre.