User:Kmbaich/Language Proficiency

Language proficiency is the ability of an individual to use language with a level of accuracy that transfers meaning in production and comprehension. There is no singular definition of language proficiency, however, and this has implications for its application in other language domains such as literacy, testing, endangered languages, language impairment, etc. There is little consistency as to how different organizations define it, and it is evaluated in different ways by different organizations. L2 proficiency develops differently from L1 proficiency, and can be impacted by the L1, by age of acquisition and by individual learner motivations and behaviors.

Defining L2 Proficiency - Jolie
Over the last half century, there has been much debate as to how to define L2 proficiency. An early theory by Lado focused on the four "skills" of language--reading, writing, speaking, and listening. These skills are still emphasized today in many instructional materials. While early theories by Chomsky and Lado, among others, focused almost exclusively on grammatical knowledge, in the 1970s, Hymes popularized the idea of pragmatic communicative competence, with competence defined as encompassing both knowledge of and use of language. In 1980, Canale and Swain published their own framework for communicative competence, based on 3 sub-competencies: grammatical, sociolinguistic, and strategic. There has also been much debate as to the difference between competence and performance, and whether proficiency encompasses, or is encompassed by, one or both of these concepts. In the 1980s, Ingram, followed by Taylor, argued that proficiency should not only consider knowledge, but how that knowledge is put to use in a given context. More recently, Hulstijn has proposed his own detailed definition of proficiency which can be applied to both native and non-native speakers. Per his definition, proficiency comprises the ability to function in any given situational context in any given modality--listening, reading, writing and speaking. His definition also includes metacognitive and metalinguistic components in addition to core components such as phonology and morphosyntax. Still, there is much debate about defining proficiency, and these differing definitions of proficiency can greatly affect how proficiency is measured.

Developing L2 Proficiency
To develop L2 proficiency, an individual needs to have active, self-directed involvement. A self-directed learner actively engages in comprehending the material and is motivated to learn the L2. According to Skehan, this would include acquiring language through language learning strategies, which is an essential aspect of developing L2 proficiency. Language learning strategies are applied for all parts of a language (phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics). For example, in word learning, some strategies include looking words up in a dictionary and reviewing learned materials. These strategies enhance language learning by provoking specific actions, behaviors, or techniques, such as word association with a synonym. Not all methods are observable because of cognitive processes occurring while learning the language. The strategies differ depending on which part of the language one is trying to learn. An example is the branch of pragmatics, which applies how words are practically used. Kasper found that when utilizing interlanguage pragmatics, the learner uses a more comparative approach instead of acquisition (how L1 is generated).

Age of second language acquisition can affect the facility and speed of developing L2 proficiency. Patkowski performed research to see if a relationship exists in second language acquisition between age and acquisition of features. He found that age plays a role in achieving native mastery for L2 when learning a second language in a natural setting. Additionally, another study was performed on Chinese and Korean speakers learning English as an L2 at different ages. This research aimed to see if the age of arrival to the United States affected grammatical judgments. The results support Patkowski, showing that the earlier a participant arrived in the United States, the more success they had at determining grammaticality judgments. In terms of speed, Snow and Hoefnagel performed an experiment looking at how age impacts the rate of learning. At first, adolescents and adults learned language faster than children, but after a year, the children had surpassed the adults in language performance levels. Based on these studies, age can affect a learner's capabilities in developing a second language. Second language proficiency is possible at any age, but different ages have distinct paces and abilities.

L1 Influence on L2 Proficiency - Brenna
There is much debate pertaining to the effect that a speaker’s L1 may have on learning a second language and how a speaker’s L1 can later influence L2 proficiency. This cross-linguistic influence in second language acquisition is known as transfer, and Lado was among the first to refer to it as such. Some components of L1 transfer include sounds, words, syntax and culture - and there are numerous perspectives regarding how these influences come into play in second language acquisition.

As previously mentioned, age of second language acquisition can play a role in an L2 learner’s capabilities. However, similarities and differences between a speaker’s L1 and their target L2 can play a role in second language acquisition as well. For example, for intermediate and late bilinguals, it has been widely found in studies that an L2 learner’s pronunciation is influenced by their L1. Phonetic similarities between a speaker’s L1 and target L2 can lead to less deviation from native-like pronunciation of the L2. Another idea relating L1 and L2 is the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, defined as “a way of comparing language in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second-language-learning situation.” For example, by this way of thinking, a direct correspondence between structures of two different languages may come easier to an L2 learner as opposed to having to learn a structure that is absent in their L1 but present in the L2. Error Analysis, like the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, is another perspective that pertains to the relationship between L1 and L2, but focuses on the comparison of the target language form and the target language produced. While some linguists argue that incorrect productions of the target language (L2) may indicate some kind of influence from L1, there are also many who argue against it, claiming that an L1’s influence on L2 shouldn’t be limited to the errors found in L2 production.

With the various perspectives regarding if and how L1 can influence L2 and so many other additional variables, it is difficult to pinpoint how each of the components of a speaker's L1 may impact the learning of an L2, let alone how these factors may influence proficiency. Further research is necessary to specify how L1 transfer can impact L2 proficiency in detail.

Evaluating L2 Proficiency and Proficiency Levels - Jolie
Because proficiency encompasses many different modalities and types of competencies, it can be difficult for educators to evaluate. Some measures of proficiency assess multiple modalities or competencies for an overall proficiency evaluation, whereas others evaluate only one specific facet of proficiency. The criteria for different scores or levels of proficiency can also vary between systems of measurement. In creating and defining proficiency scales, it is important to reference corpora which indicate natural and common stages of language development in order to align proficiency levels with typical stages of L2 acquisition.

There exist a number of popular frameworks for understanding and organizing proficiency levels--though they are not, in themselves, actual assessments. One of the most widely used frameworks for proficiency is the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. It serves as a standard for proficiency measurement across Europe and in many other countries outside of Europe. It measures general and communicative competences via activities and tasks. The three main levels, A (Basic User), B (Independent User), and C (Proficient User) are broken into sub-levels 1 and 2, with C2 being the highest level. In the US, the American Council of the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) proficiency guidelines are widely used. The guidelines break proficiency into five levels (Novice, Intermediate, Advanced, Superior, Distinguished), with the lowest three levels subdivided into low, mid and high. It is important to note that the ACTFL guidelines and Common European Framework are intended to be used not as assessments, but as guidelines in creating curricula and assessments. They can serve as a tool for helping learners self-assess during the course of their learning. CEFR actually provides a self-assessment grid for learners.

There are a number of tests designed for proficiency assessment, many of them following the Common European Framework proficiency levels. ACTFL has created a number of tests by skill based on the ACTFL guidelines. Please see the Proficiency Tests section below for more information and tests.

Proficiency Frameworks - Jolie
(underlined info was added by Jolie to existing article info)

Note that levels may not correlate reliably:


 * ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines ACTFL recognizes five different levels of proficiency: novice, intermediate, advanced, superior, and distinguished, of which the first three are each subdivided into low, mid, and high. These levels of proficiency are defined by Can-Do statements in three modes of communication--interpersonal, interpretive and presentational. There has been some concern that the ACTFL Can-Do Statements are too vague and that the difficulty of some skills may not match appropriately with proficiency levels. In a study by Tigchelaar et al., fifteen of the 50 selected Can-Do Statements were found to be inconsistent with the prescribed proficiency levels.
 * CEFR - Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: The Common European Framework defines levels of proficiency based on general and communicative competence. It consists of six levels: A1 and A2 (Basic Users), B1 and B2 (Independent Users), and C1 and C2 (Proficient Users), with C2 being the highest and A1 being the lowest. Proficiency levels are defined by descriptors of what the user can understand, produce and communicate. It addresses the structural accuracy of speaker utterances and, to some extent, speaker performance in varying sociolinguistic contexts. For example, a C1 speaker can read and understand a variety of texts, produce detailed, structurally-sound utterances, and interact appropriately in social, academic and professional contexts, to name a few. However, the CEFR has been criticized for being overly subjective, making it hard to to ensure inter-rater reliability. Additionally, the highest levels (B2, C1, and C2) may require very high levels of education for L1 and L2 speakers alike to achieve them.
 * Foreign Service Institute School of Language Studies. Levels range from 0 to 5. (deprecated)
 * Interagency Language Roundtable Levels range from 0 to 5. (evolved from FSI)
 * Language Proficiency Index

Proficiency Tests - Jolie
(underlined info was added by Jolie to existing article info)
 * Online language proficiency test (Level 4, Level 5, Level 6) for pilots in English or German
 * Avant STAMP (STAndards-based Measurement of Proficiency)
 * Cambridge English Assessment tests.
 * Tests include the Cambridge English Qualifications and IELTS (see below). Aligned to the CEFR levels.
 * CaMLA (Cambridge Michigan Language Assessments)


 * CELI (Certificato di Conoscenza della Lingua Italiana)
 * CELPE-Bras (Certificate of Proficiency in Portuguese for Foreigners)
 * CILS (Certificazione di Italiano come Lingua Straniera)
 * DALF (Diploma in Advanced French Language)
 * French proficiency test for advanced speakers of French. Aligns with CEFR levels C1 and C2.
 * Defense Language Proficiency Tests
 * DELF (Diplôme d'études en langue française)
 * French proficiency test for speakers of French. Aligns with CEFR levels A1-B2.
 * DELE (Diplomas of Spanish as Foreign Language)
 * Issued by the Spanish Instituto Cervantes and the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science. Proficiency levels correspond to the CEFR.
 * Examination for Japanese University Admission
 * General English Proficiency Test
 * GOETHE
 * HSK (汉语水平考试 Hànyǔ Shuǐpíng Kǎoshì-Chinese Proficiency Test)
 * Standardized test for Standard Chinese proficiency. Administered by an agency of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. Scores I-VI.
 * IELTS (International English Language Testing System)
 * Created by Cambridge Assessment English. In addition to TOEFL, One of the most widely used English language tests. Divided into listening, reading, writing and speaking sections. Scores range from 0 to 9, and scores 4 to 9 correspond to CEFR levels B1, B2, C1, and C2.
 * iTEP (International Test of English Proficiency)
 * Japanese Language Proficiency Test (日本語能力試験 Nihongo Nōryoku Shiken)
 * Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers
 * Pearson Test of English Academic (PTE-A)
 * Pipplet Fluency Exam CEFR oral and writing
 * PLIDA (Progetto Lingua Italiana Dante Alighieri)
 * The European Language Certificates (telc - language tests)
 * Corresponds to the CEFR proficiency levels.
 * TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language)
 * Created by the Educational Testing Service. In addition to IETLS, one of the mostly widely used English language tests. Divided into reading, listening, speaking and writing sections. Each section has a maximum score of 30 points, for a maximum total of 120 points.
 * TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication)
 * TOPIK (한국어능력시험 Test of Proficiency in Korean)
 * Scores from 1-6. 1-2 are TOPIK-I (beginner) scores and 4-6 (intermediate/advanced) are TOPIK-II scores.
 * TEPS (Test of English Proficiency developed by Seoul National University)
 * Test of Russian as a Foreign Language
 * Scores correspond to the CEFR proficiency levels.
 * Test de français international
 * Test de connaissance du français
 * TOCFL (華語文能力測驗 Test of Chinese as a Foreign Language)
 * UBELT (University of Bath English Language Test)

See also: Language tests category