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Genetics Genetics the study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics. Genetics is separated into three areas of Genetic Studies. Much of genetics research is done with model genetics organism. Two basic cell types are Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. The gene is the fundamental unit of heredity, and Genetic information is stored in DNA / Genes are located on chromosomes. Genes come in multiple forms called alleles, which are alternative forms of a gene that differs at the level of DNA Sequencing. Only two alleles can be held or carried by a diploid organism, making them heterozygous or homozygous. Genetics information is transferred from DNA to RNA to Proteins. Some traits are affected by multiple factors due to the multiple genes, the environmental pressures, or both together. Mutations are permanent changes to genetic information, and Genetic change allows adaptation. Mutation introduces genetic variation into populations and Some genetic variants will be better adapted for their environment and will increase in frequency.

Molecular Genetics Molecular Genetics is the section of biology that studies the structure and function of genes on a molecular level. this study give highlight to the studies of chromosomes and gene expression of an organism, which offers the study of heredity, genetic variation and mutations. Molecular genetics is important in understanding and treating genetic diseases.

Role of sex chromosomes The X chromosome, Contains genetic information essential for both sexes. At least one copy of an X is required. The Y chromosome is male determining. Absence produces female while the presence produces male, even with multi X. The male-determining gene is located on in the sex-determining region on the Y chromosome (SRY), which encodes a transcription factor. SRY alters gene expression that regulates gonad formation which determines hormone production and development of sex traits. Characteristics associated with sex, are like the one above but also, Sex-influenced Characteristic and example would be the Horns in sheep, these genes are located on autosomal chromosomes but the sex of the individual influences the expression. also, Sex-limited Characteristic and example would be Milk production---genes on an autosomal chromosomes only expressed in one sex.

Chromosomes Autosomal vs Sex Chromosomes- autosomal Chromosomes can be found in both male and female of species. Sex chromosomes, are the X and y chromosomes and determine the pattern of inheritance differs from autosomal.

mRNA Isolation The mRNA is coded for the synthesis of a protein that is expressed DNA. mRNA adds up to 200 Adenine nucleotides to the ends of the molecule, called the poly A tail. once added, the cell then separates or burst and its contents are exposed to a coated thymine sting of nucleotides. As you know Adenine and Thymine pair together in DNA this poly tail and the beads naturally attract each other. once blinded the rest of the cell contents dissipates without the mRNA. once isolated, the reverse transcriptase is to convert it to single-stranded DNA, from which a stable double-stranded DNA is produced using DNA polymerase. Complementary DNA (cDNA) is much more stable than mRNA and so, once the double-stranded DNA has been produced it represents the expressed DNA sequence.

 Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) profiling  Mitochondrial DNA is used for determining the source of DNA recovered from damaged, degraded, or very small biological samples. MtDNA is a small circular genome located in the mitochondria, which are located outside of a cell's nucleus. Most human cells contain hundreds of copies of mtDNA genomes, as opposed to two copies of the DNA that is located in the nucleus. The inner mitochondrial membrane contains all of the components of the electron transport system and the ATP synthase complex; it also has many invaginations, called cristae, that greatly increase its total surface area. The double membranes form two mitochondrial compartments: the intermembrane space, located between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes, and the matrix, located inside the inner membrane. Mitochondrial DNA is housed in the mitochondrial matrix. Further information on mitochondrial DNA can be foundhere.

Types of applications Mitochondrial DNA mtDNA can play an important role in missing persons investigations, mass disasters, and other forensic investigations involving samples with limited biological material. Additionally, mtDNA is maternally inherited. Therefore, barring a mutation, an individual's mother, siblings, as well as all other maternally-related family members will have identical mtDNA sequences. NIJ-funded research projects, has supported research to develop tools to rapidly screen biological evidence to obtain mtDNA information, as well as tools for separating the individual components of mtDNA mixtures and to improve the resolving power of mtDNA information. Companies like 23andme.com use mitochondrial DNA to track ancestry as well.

Issues Mitochondrial DNA has been utilized by the forensics branch of science to source DNA, even from minute or damaged samples. Because mtDNA is inherited from the mother, forensic scientists can use any maternal relative as a reference when sourcing DNA. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) created a standard Reference Material database to speed up mtDNA sequencing, thereby making the process more efficient. extras The mitochondrial genome is transmitted exclusively through the mammalian female germ line. After mtDNA, comparisons with mitochondrial protein sequences revealed deviations from the standard genetic code. later there was even variations in codon usage were found in mitochondria from different species. one of the essential organelles that play a key role in fundamental cellular processes are Mitochondria's. they contain there own genome, and Mutations of mtDNA can cause severe diseases in humans. according to, (Organization and dynamics of human mitochondrial DNA) "The genetic and physical organization of mtDNA differ significantly between protists (which have significant proportions of linear mtDNA-molecules of varying length) and vertebrates (which have compact and circular mtDNA-molecules of homogeneous size) (Burger et al., 2003; Williamson, 2002). Therefore, it is unclear whether and how the findings on protist-mtDNA can be extrapolated to human mtDNA."

''References Website: |title=National Institute of Justice |url=https://www.nij.gov/topics/forensics/evidence/dna/research/pages/mitochondrial.aspx |website=Office of Justice Program |accessdate=26 November 2018}} Website: Article: Journal: {{cite journal |last1=Taanman |first1=Jan-willem |title=The mitochondrial genome: structure, transcription, translation and replication |journal=ELSEVIER |date=9 February 1999 |volume=1410 |issue=2 |pages=103-123 https://nij.gov/topics/forensics/evidence/dna/research/pages/mitochondrial.aspx