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Louis-François-Marie Tardy de Montravel (28 September 1811 – 4 October 1864) was a French navigator explorer and adminstrator.

Biography
Born in Vincennes, he was the son of an artillery colonel, Marie-Alexandre-Auguste Tardy de Montravel. He was admitted to the Naval Academy as a 2nd class student in 1827 and became a 1st class student in 1829. Promoted to Lieutenant on January 1, 1833, he volunteered for the Antarctic expedition led by [Jules Dumont d'Urville|Admiral Dumont d'Urville]]. His work in astronomy, geography and hydrography was one of the major sources for the writing of the atlas of this expedition. It also contributed significantly to the entomological collection which is constituted at the National Museum of Natural History. The quality of his workduring this trip was rewarded with the rank of lieutenant in 1839 and the Legion of Honour in 1842.

Brazil
On returning to Europe, Tardy de Montravel took command of the brig Boulonnais. Assigned to the Brazil station, this vessel was responsible for carrying out the hydrographic survey of the northern coast of Brazil, that of Guyana, and the mouth and course of the Amazon, which it ascended for 1000 km. This cartography work, carried out from 1842 to 1845, resulted in the development of an atlas of fourteen maps and the writing of two nautical documents. The publication of this hydrographic material earned its author the rank of lieutenant commander in 1846. These documents were to constitute a major element of documentation during the negotiations to delimit the border between French Guiana and Brazil concluded in 1856. In 1847, Captain de Montravel was appointed commander of the corvette L'Astrolabe, which joined the naval station on the coast of Argentina during the Platine War. He was responsible for bringing back to mainland France the treaty concluded with this country on August 31, 1850.

A hill and a beach, in French Guiana near Cayenne, are named Montravel.

New Caledonia
Tardy de Montravel was promoted to captain on February 2, 1852, and embarked on the corvette La Constantine travelling to New Caledonia, which Rear-Admiral Febvrier-Despointes had just taken possession of. Montravel carried out a survey of the territory's coasts and managed the new colony. He decided to transfer the French establishment of Balade to the Nouméa peninsula.

He founded the city of Port-de-France there, renamed Nouméa in 1866, and built Fort Constantine to protect it. The reports he sent on the resources of the region were published by the government in Le Moniteur Universel.

A district of Nouméa is also called Montravel.

Far East and Guyana
During the Crimean War, La Constantine sailed at the head of a naval division in the China and Japan seas, in the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and at the mouth of the Amur River. Created an officer of the Legion of Honor in 1855, Tardy de Montravel returned to France the following year. He published the scientific results of his navigations on La Constantine in 1857. His observations on the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, which was previously known only through reports from whalers, were taken up as a reference source by the Bureau des Longitudes. Captain de Montravel was a deputy member on the Admiralty Council until his appointment as 41st governor of French Guiana on 16 February, 1859. In this role, he worked to improve the health of the Penal Colony of French Guiana and to promote the economic potential of agriculture and forestry which was carried on by convict labour.

Promoted to Commander of the Legion of Honor in 1860, he was elevated to the rank of rear admiral on February 27, 1864. He became Commander of the Orders of the Court and the Sword of Portugal, the Iron Crown, the Dutch Lion, and Our Lady of Guadalupe of Mexico.

Affected by the tropical climate, he died in Elbeuf on October 5, 1864 during convalescent leave in mainland France.

Life
He appears to have served for some time in the Royal Navy, and to have been a midshipman in 1745. Passages in his own writings show that he was active in the Malay Archipelago from at least 1753. The date of his employment by the Marine of the East India Company is not clear, but in 1757 he was master of the Company's sloop Neptune, which left Madras for Bencoolen on 14 August. The ship capsized and sank with the loss of most of its crew. Forrest and two others were rescued. He was next in command of the sloop Fanny trading in arrack and wine in Batavia in 1759, but fell foul of the Dutch who confiscated most of his cargo and damaged the ship.

Forrest then became a "freighter" or private merchant, trading in opium. He was caught up in the Seven Years War between France and Britain, and was off Fort Marlborough when it capitulated to the French on 3 April, 1760. He was released by the French as a private merchant, returned to Batavia to continue trading in opium, and his profits were sufficient for him to purchase the ketch Bonetta. She sailed from northern Sumatra to Bali in early 1762, but was then wrecked near Saleyer He was assisted by the Dutch, who returned him and other survivors to Fort Marlborough in August 1762. Records for the next 10 years are sparse. Forrest and his crew sailed the Company Ketch Nancy to India for repairs, arrriving in Vizagapatam in early 1763. Forrest presumably resumed his position in the Company's Marine. He commanded Company ships on two trading voyages to Bencoolen, in Syren in 1763 and Diligent in 1765. He must then have left the Company's service, because on 17 January 1770 he was re-instated iin the Company's Marine at Fort Marlborough. Forrest was then in England, and sailed from Gravesend to Madras with his wife Esther. In 1771 Forrest took command of the Company ship Luconia, and was engaged in transporting officials and trade goods. In 1772, he transferred to the Briannia, which was carrying John Herbert (1723-1799) to Balambangan where he was to become governor of a new trading settlement.

From 1774-1776 he led an exploring mission in the direction of New Guinea to locate potential sources of spices, and to carry out survey work. He sailed on 9 November in the Tartar, a garay boat from Sulu of about ten tons burden, with two English officers and a crew of eighteen Malays. In this, accompanied during part of the time by two small boats, he pushed his explorations as far as Geelvink Bay in New Guinea, examining the Sulu Archipelago, the south coast of Mindanao, Mandiolo, Batchian, and particularly Waigeo, of which his was the first good chart. Forrest reached Dorei Harbour, and returned to Achin (present-day Aceh) in March 1776. He then returned to London, arriving in early 1777, in order to give an account of his voyage to the directors of the Company. They gave permission for publication of a book which appeared in 1779 entitled A Voyage to New Guinea, and the Moluccas from Balambangan. The book brought him some fame in scientific circles, and he was able to introduce William Marsden, first Secretary to the Admiralty, to Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society, in 1780.

In 1780, Forrest took command of the Company brig Lively, leaving Gravesend on 26 September. He took with him an Arnold chronometer for determinng longitudes in India. He arrived in Madras on 27 March 1781, and was immediately engaged in supporting Britain in the war with France, both transporting people and material and in diplomatic and intelligence activitity. In 1782, in the ketch Fly, he located the French fleet, which had left the coast of India and had eluded Sir Edward Hughes the English commander-in-chief, at Aceh. He was able to bring the information to Vizagapatam, which he reached on 20 December, and this saved a number of ships from capture by the French.

In the following June, 1783, Forrest set sail from Calcutta in the brig Esther to survey the Andaman Islands. However he was blown to the east of them, passing through the Preparis Channel to the Tenassegim coast, which he examined southwards as far as Quedah. In 1790 he made a more thorough examination of the same coast and of the Mergui Archipelago, which forms a long row north to south, with a 125-mile-long sheltered passage between them and the mainland. He christened that stretch Forrest Strait, by which name it is still known. The log of the first voyage was published in 1783, entitled A journal of the Esther brig. . The second voyage was published in 1792 as A Voyage from Calcutta to the Mergui Archipelago. This volume was dedicated to William Aldersey, president of the board of trade in Bengal, who was described as Forrest's cousin.

Forrest is said to have died in India about 1802, though Bassett suggests it may have been 1804.

Biography
W.E. May was educated at the Royal Naval Colleges at Osborne and Dartmouth. He went to sea in 1915 as a Midshipman on HMS Temeraire (1907) and saw action at the Battle of Jutland. He worked as a surveyor in HMS Merlin and HMS Flinders, and qualified in navigation in 1923. In 1924, he married Mary Elspeth Margaret James. In 1927 he took a position as gyrocompass inspector with the instrument maker S G Brown Ltd.

In 1929, May was appointed to the Admiralty Compass Observatory, being Superintendent of Gyro-compasses at Devonport from 1933-1936, Malta from 1936-1939, and Portsmouth from 1939-1942. From 1942 he was responsible for organising installation and services for gyro-compasses as well as for training.

May was a founder member of the Institute of Navigation in 1947. He became increasingly interested in the history of compasses and of navigation more generally. He collected compasses from many countries, and this collection was transferred to the National Maritime Museum. In 1951, May became Deputy Director of the Museum, and supervised the restoration of the Octagon Room and Flamsteed House in the 17th-century buildings which housed the museum. He wrote many articles and a number of books on compasses and navigation. At the museum, May had special responsibility for swords, and in 1970 published a two-volume work, Swords for Sea Service with P.G.W. Annis, based on the museum's collections. Many of May's papers are in the archive of the Royal Museums, Greenwich.

Selected publications

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History
In the year 1380, it is recorded that the Zeno Brothers, Nicolò and Antonio, of Venice, on a voyage of dicovery in he North Atlantic landed on the Island of Frislanda. They and their crew were attacked by a crowd of natives. The party, weakened by the long voyage, were in great danger, but were saved by the arrival of a principe, whose men dispersed the natives and rescued the venetians. The principe, whose name was Zichmia, addressed them in Latin, and assured them of his friendship. They entered Zichmi's service, and assisted him in his miltary operations.

The account of the voyage was first published in 1558 by Nicolò Zeno the younger as Dello Scoprimento dell'Isole Frislanda, Eslanda, Engrouelanda, Estotilanda, & Icaria. It was translated into English and edited by R.H. Major in 1873. Nicolò the younger was the great-great-great grandson of Antonia Zeno, one of the two explorers. He assembled the narrative from fragments of letters and an "old and rotten chart" that had survived from nearly two centuries earlier. He redrew the chart, which clearly shows Frisland at a position south of Iceland and north-west of Scotland, at a position where no island exists. This is the first known mention of the name Frisland, but Nicolò the younger clearly took some of the details of his Frisland from ealier maps showing an island called Fixland, and which has a number of similar place names

Forster 1786. Identification of Zichmi with Sinclair. Suggests Frisland swallowed up by earthquake.

Modern(ish) texts:




 * Lucas 1898





Prunes chart (LOC) di Robilant (2011) p.59

Olaus Magnus Carta Marina 1539: di Robilant p.59, Sigurdsson p392, Lucas 1898

Zamoiski (Zamoyski) map by (Donnus) Nicolaus Germanus 1467 : Lucas 1898

cited by di Robilant (2011) pp 58-59:





Cited by Major (1873):



Background
A pendulum hangs straight downwards in a symmetrical gravitational field. However, if a sufficiently large mass such as a mountain is nearby, its gravitational attraction should pull the pendulum's plumb-bob slightly out of true (in the sense that it doesn't point to the centre of mass of the Earth). The change in plumb-line angle against a known object—such as a star—could be carefully measured on opposite sides of the mountain. If the mass of the mountain could be independently established from a determination of its volume and an estimate of the mean density of its rocks, then these values could be extrapolated to provide the mean density of the Earth, and by extension, its mass.

Isaac Newton had considered the effect in the Principia, but pessimistically thought that any real mountain would produce too small a deflection to measure. Gravitational effects, he wrote, were only discernible on the planetary scale. Newton's pessimism was unfounded: although his calculations had suggested a deviation of less than 2 minutes of arc (for an idealised 3 mi mountain), this angle, though very slight, was within the theoretical capability of instruments of his day.

An experiment to test Newton's idea would both provide supporting evidence for his law of universal gravitation, and estimates of the mass and density of the Earth. Since the masses of astronomical objects were known only in terms of relative ratios, the mass of the Earth would provide reasonable values to the other planets, their moons, and the Sun. The data were also capable of determining the value of the Newtonian constant of gravitation $G$, though this was not a goal of the experimenters; references to a value for $G$ would not appear in the scientific literature until almost a hundred years later.

Chimborazo, 1738
A pair of French astronomers, Pierre Bouguer and Charles Marie de La Condamine, were the first to attempt the experiment, conducting their measurements on the 6268 m volcano Chimborazo. At the time, this lay in the "Real Audiencia of Quito" of the Viceroyalty of Peru, and is now in the province of Chimborazo in the Republic of Ecuador. Their expedition had left France for South America in 1735 to try to measure the meridian arc length of one degree of latitude near the equator, but they took advantage of the opportunity to attempt the deflection experiment. In December 1738, under very difficult conditions of terrain and climate, they conducted a pair of measurements at altitudes of 4,680 and 4,340 m. Bouguer wrote in a 1749 paper that they had been able to detect a deflection of 8 seconds of arc, but he downplayed the significance of their results, suggesting that the experiment would be better carried out under easier conditions in France or England. He added that the experiment had at least proved that the Earth could not be a hollow shell, as some thinkers of the day, including Edmond Halley, had suggested.

Schiehallion, 1774


Between 1763 and 1767, during operations to survey the Mason–Dixon line between the states of Pennsylvania and Maryland, British astronomers found many more systematic and non-random errors than might have been expected, extending the work longer than planned. When this information reached the members of the Royal Society, Henry Cavendish realized that the phenomenon may have been due to the gravitational pull of the nearby Allegheny Mountains, which had probably diverted the plumb lines of the theodolites and the liquids inside spirit levels.

Prompted by this news, a further attempt on the experiment was proposed to the Royal Society in 1772 by Nevil Maskelyne, Astronomer Royal. He suggested that the experiment would "do honour to the nation where it was made" and proposed Whernside in Yorkshire, or the Blencathra-Skiddaw massif in Cumberland as suitable targets. The Royal Society formed the Committee of Attraction to consider the matter, appointing Maskelyne, Joseph Banks and Benjamin Franklin amongst its members. The Committee dispatched the astronomer and surveyor Charles Mason to find a suitable mountain.

After a lengthy search over the summer of 1773, Mason reported that the best candidate was Schiehallion (then spelled Schehallien), a 1083 m peak lying between Loch Tay and Loch Rannoch in the central Scottish Highlands. The mountain stood in isolation from any nearby hills, which would reduce their gravitational influence, and its symmetrical east–west ridge would simplify the calculations. Its steep northern and southern slopes would allow the experiment to be sited close to its centre of mass, maximising the deflection effect.

Mason declined to conduct the work himself for the offered commission of one guinea per day. The task therefore fell to Maskelyne, for which he was granted a temporary leave of his duties as Astronomer Royal. He was aided in the task by mathematician and surveyor Charles Hutton, and Reuben Burrow who was a mathematician of the Royal Greenwich Observatory. A workforce of labourers was engaged to construct observatories for the astronomers and assist in the surveying. The science team was particularly well-equipped: its astronomical instruments included a 12 in brass quadrant from Cook's 1769 transit of Venus expedition, a 10 ft zenith sector, and a regulator (precision pendulum clock) for timing the astronomical observations. They also acquired a theodolite and Gunter's chain for surveying the mountain, and a pair of barometers for measuring altitude. Generous funding for the experiment was available due to underspend on the transit of Venus expedition, which had been turned over to the Society by King George III.

Astronomical


Observatories were constructed to the north and south of the mountain, plus a bothy to accommodate equipment and the scientists. The ruins of these structures remain on the mountainside. Most of the workforce was housed in rough canvas tents. Maskelyne's astronomical measurements were the first to be conducted. It was necessary for him to determine the zenith distances with respect to the plumb line for a set of stars at the precise time that each passed due south (astronomic latitude). Weather conditions were frequently unfavourable due to mist and rain. However, from the south observatory, he was able to take 76 measurements on 34 stars in one direction, and then 93 observations on 39 stars in the other. From the north side, he then conducted a set of 68 observations on 32 stars and a set of 100 on 37 stars. By conducting sets of measurements with the plane of the zenith sector first facing east and then west, he successfully avoided any systematic errors arising from collimating the sector.

To determine the deflection due to the mountain, it was necessary to account for the curvature of the Earth: an observer moving north or south will see the local zenith shift by the same angle as any change in geodetic latitude. After accounting for observational effects such as precession, aberration of light and nutation, Maskelyne showed that the difference between the locally determined zenith for observers north and south of Schiehallion was 54.6 arc seconds. Once the surveying team had provided a difference of 42.94″ latitude between the two stations, he was able to subtract this, and after rounding to the accuracy of his observations, announce that the sum of the north and south deflections was 11.6″.

Maskelyne published his initial results in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1775, using preliminary data on the mountain's shape and hence the position of its center of gravity. This led him to expect a deflection of 20.9″ if the mean densities of Schiehallion and the Earth were equal. Since the deflection was about half this, he was able to make a preliminary announcement that the mean density of the Earth was approximately double that of Schiehallion. A more accurate value would have to await completion of the surveying process.

Maskelyne took the opportunity to note that Schiehallion exhibited a gravitational attraction, and thus all mountains did; and that Newton's inverse square law of gravitation had been confirmed. An appreciative Royal Society presented Maskelyne with the 1775 Copley Medal; the biographer Chalmers later noting that "If any doubts yet remained with respect to the truth of the Newtonian system, they were now totally removed".

Surveying
The work of the surveying team was greatly hampered by the inclemency of the weather, and it took until 1776 to complete the task. To find the volume of the mountain, it was necessary to divide it into a set of vertical prisms and compute the volume of each. The triangulation task falling to Charles Hutton was considerable: the surveyors had obtained thousands of bearing angles to more than a thousand points around the mountain. Moreover, the vertices of his prisms did not always conveniently coincide with the surveyed heights. To make sense of all his data, he hit upon the idea of interpolating a series of lines at set intervals between his measured values, marking points of equal height. In doing so, not only could he easily determine the heights of his prisms, but from the swirl of the lines one could get an instant impression of the form of the terrain. Hutton thus used contour lines, which became in common use since for depicting cartographic relief.

Hutton had to compute the individual attractions due to each of the many prisms that formed his grid, a process which was as laborious as the survey itself. The task occupied his time for a further two years before he could present his results, which he did in a hundred-page paper to the Royal Society in 1778. He found that the attraction of the plumb-bob to the Earth would be 9,933 times that of the sum of its attractions to the mountain at the north and south stations, if the density of the Earth and Schiehallion had been the same. Since the actual deflection of 11.6″ implied a ratio of 17,804:1 after accounting for the effect of latitude on gravity, he was able to state that the Earth had a mean density of $$\tfrac{17,804}{9,933}$$, or about $$\tfrac{9}{5}$$ that of the mountain. The lengthy process of surveying the mountain had not therefore greatly affected the outcome of Maskelyne's calculations. Hutton took a density of 2,500 kg·m−3 for Schiehallion, and announced that the density of the Earth was $$\tfrac{9}{5}$$ of this, or 4,500 kg·m−3. In comparison with the modern accepted figure of 5,515 kg·m−3, the density of the Earth had been computed with an error of less than 20%.

That the mean density of the Earth should so greatly exceed that of its surface rocks naturally meant that there must be more dense material lying deeper. Hutton correctly surmised that the core material was likely metallic, and might have a density of 10,000 kg·m−3. He estimated this metallic portion to occupy some 65% of the diameter of the Earth. With a value for the mean density of the Earth, Hutton was able to set some values to Jérôme Lalande's planetary tables, which had previously only been able to express the densities of the major solar system objects in relative terms.

Repeat experiments
A more accurate measurement of the mean density of the Earth was made 24 years after Schiehallion, when in 1798 Henry Cavendish used an exquisitely sensitive torsion balance to measure the attraction between large masses of lead. Cavendish's figure of 5,448 ± 33 kg·m−3 was only 1.2% from the currently accepted value of 5,515 kg·m−3, and his result would not be significantly improved upon until 1895 by Charles Boys. The care with which Cavendish conducted the experiment and the accuracy of his result has led his name to since be associated with it.

The Scottish scientist John Playfair carried out a second survey of Schiehallion in 1811; on the basis of a rethink of its rock strata, he suggested a density of 4,560 to 4,870 kg·m−3, though the then elderly Hutton vigorously defended the original value in an 1821 paper to the Society. Playfair's calculations had raised the density closer towards its modern value, but was still too low and significantly poorer than Cavendish's computation of some years earlier.

The Schiehallion experiment was repeated in 1856 by Henry James, director-general of the Ordnance Survey, who instead used the hill Arthur's Seat in central Edinburgh. With the resources of the Ordnance Survey at his disposal, James extended his topographical survey to a 21-kilometre radius, taking him as far as the borders of Midlothian. He obtained a density of about 5,300 kg·m−3.

An experiment in 2005 undertook a variation of the 1774 work: instead of computing local differences in the zenith, the experiment made a very accurate comparison of the period of a pendulum at the top and bottom of Schiehallion. The period of a pendulum is a function of g, the local gravitational acceleration. The pendulum is expected to run more slowly at altitude, but the mass of the mountain will act to reduce this difference. This experiment has the advantage of being considerably easier to conduct than the 1774 one, but to achieve the desired accuracy, it is necessary to measure the period of the pendulum to within one part in one million. This experiment yielded a value of the mass of the Earth of 8.1 ± 2.4 × 1024 kg, corresponding to a mean density of 7,500 ± 1,900 kg·m−3.

A modern re-examination of the geophysical data was able to take account of factors the 1774 team could not. With the benefit of a 120-km radius digital elevation model, greatly improved knowledge of the geology of Schiehallion, and the help of a computer, a 2007 report produced a mean Earth density of 5,480 ± 250 kg·m−3. When compared to the modern figure of 5,515 kg·m−3, it stood as a testament to the accuracy of Maskelyne's astronomical observations.

Mathematical procedure
Consider the force diagram to the right, in which the deflection has been greatly exaggerated. The analysis has been simplified by considering the attraction on only one side of the mountain. A plumb-bob of mass $Z$ is situated a distance $Z&prime;$ from $m$, the centre of mass of a mountain of mass $d$ and density $P$. It is deflected through a small angle $M_{M}$ due to its attraction $ρ_{M}$ towards $θ$ and its weight $F$ directed towards the Earth. The vector sum of $P$ and $W$ results in a tension $W$ in the pendulum string. The Earth has a mass $F$, radius $T$ and a density $M_{E}$.

The two gravitational forces on the plumb-bob are given by Newton's law of gravitation:



F = \frac {G m M_M} {d^2} ,\quad W = \frac {G m M_E} {r_E^2} $$

where $r_{E}$ is the Newtonian constant of gravitation. $ρ_{E}$ and $G$ can be eliminated by taking the ratio of $G$ to $m$:



\frac {F} {W} = \frac {G m M_M / d^2} {G m M_E / r_E^2} = \frac {M_M}{M_E} \left( \frac {r_E}{d} \right)^2 = \frac {\rho_M} {\rho_E} \frac {V_M} {V_E} \left( \frac {r_E}{d} \right)^2 $$

where $F$ and $W$ are the volumes of the mountain and the Earth. Under static equilibrium, the horizontal and vertical components of the string tension $V_{M}$ can be related to the gravitational forces and the deflection angle $V_{E}$:



W = T \cos \theta ,\quad F = T \sin \theta $$

Substituting for $T$:



\tan \theta = \frac {F} {W} = \frac {\rho_M}{\rho_E} \frac {V_M}{V_E} \left( \frac {r_E}{d} \right)^2 $$

Since $θ$, $T$ and $V_{E}$ are all known, $V_{M}$ has been measured and $r_{E}$ has been computed, then a value for the ratio $5,480 kg·m^{−3}$ can be obtained:



\frac {\rho_E}{\rho_M} = \frac {V_M}{V_E} \left( \frac {r_E}{d} \right)^2 \frac {1}{\tan \theta} $$

Publications
Calver contributed to the following volumes of sailing directions:
 * The directions from Dunkerque to the Elbe are by Mr. E. K. Calver, Master, R.N., from the charts of Ryk and Van Rhyn, the Dutch Ariel by Modera, and other authorities, as well as from his own observations.
 * The directions for Shetland were prepared by Mr. E. K. Calver, Master, R.N., from materials supplied by the late Commander G. Thomas.
 * Originally written in 1858 by Mr. E.K. Calver, Master, R.N.. Recompiled by Bedford, and published in 1869. This edition revised 1879.
 * The work was originally prepared in 1857 by Staff Commander E. K. Calver, R.N., who had been employed on the survey of this coast from the year 1836. The second edition was published in 1869,

The Edinburgh Channels, formerly a single channel known as the Bullock Channel and then the Duke of Edinburgh Channel are two roughly parallel transverse channels in the Thames Estuary. They used to be important for navigation, providing a deep approach to the River Thames from the south-east through the sandbanks of the estuary. The opening of an alternative channel in 2000 has greatly reduced their use, but having been surveyed and studied extensively over the past two centuries they provide an important example of the processes that shape shallow water landforms.

Backgound
The Thames Estuary and the adjacent part of the North Sea is an area of shallow water with many sandbanks and channels, and substantial tidal currents, often 2-2.5 knots at springs. On the flood, the main tidal flow comes from the north, and then passes in a south-westerly direction towards the river mouth. It is the scouring action of this current that determines the main pattern of banks and channels, which run in a SW -NE direction. A secondary tidal current arrives from the Strait of Dover 2-3 hours after the peak of the main flow. This current passes into the estuary from the south-east, and has cut several transverse channels or swatchways, across the banks, including the Edinburgh Channels. On the ebb tide the pattern is reversed with similar speeds and timings.

History
Thomas Henry Tizard, surveyor and oceanographer, has presented an account of the changes in the area from the survey by George Thomas in 1810 to his own work in 1882 and 1889. In 1810 there was a channel with 30 foot depth known as Thomas's New Channel, and an inlet to the south-west of it. When surveyed by Frederick Bullock in 1839, Thomas's channel had narrowed and shoaled, but the inlet noted by Thomas had opened into a new channel with 18 feet depth, which was named Bullock's channel. The next survey in 1862, by Edward Calver, showed that Bullock's Channel had deepened and widened, with a depth of 42 feet, but that Thomas's channel had completely closed. Tizard's first survey was in 1882 in connection with the marking of the channel by buoys. At this time the channel was renamed the Duke of Edinburgh Channel in honour of Prince Alfred, Master of Trinity House. Tizard noted the presence of a shallower patch, with a depth of 30 feet, near the centre of the channel. The channel was lighted in 1889, with two lightships and three gas-lighted buoys. Tizard noted 1n 1889 that the patch had bcome shallower, and was about a mile in length.

In the mid-nineteenth century, most shipping into the Thames from the south-east used the Princes and Alexandra Channels, to the south of Shingles. As vesels became larger and with deeper draught these channels became insufficient, and the Duke of Edinburgh Channel became increasingly important. The patch in the middle, now known as Shingles Patch, became larger and shallower, and by 1910 had divided the channel into two, now known as the North and South Edinburgh channels, both being used for navigation. By 1933 Shingles Patch had shoaled sufficently that part of it dried at low water, and it had also shifted north, causing the north channel to become narrower.

Fisherman's Gat, a swatchway to the north-east of the Edinburgh Channels, became steadliy deeper from the 1950s on, making it increasingly attractive as an alternative to the Edinburgh Channels. It was buoyed and opened to shipping in 2000.

Current status
The Edinburgh channels are now unmarked, and no longer used by commercial shipping, but are still used by smaller craft.

Discovery
Sumner discovered the line on a voyage from South Carolina to Greenock in Scotland in 1837. On December 17, as he was nearing the coast of Wales, he was uncertain of his position after several days of cloudy weather and no sights. A momentary opening in the clouds allowed him to determine the altidude of the sun. This, together with the chronometer time and the latitude enabled him to calculate the longitude. But he was not confident of his latitude, which depended on dead reckoning (DR). So he calculated longitude using his DR value and two more values of latitude 10' and 20' to the north. He found that the three positions were on a straight line which happened to pass through Smalls Lighthouse. He realised that he must be located somewhere on that line and that if he set course E.N.E. along the line he should eventually sight the Smalls Light which, in fact he did, in less than an hour. Having found the line empirically, he then worked out the theory, and published this in a book in 1843. The method was quickly recognized as an important development in celestial navigation, and was made available to every ship in the United States Navy.

Description
The line of equal altitude for a celestial object is a circle with its centre at the point on the earth directly below the object, A in the diagram. Thus the altutude of the object at A is 90°. BB'B, CC'C and DD'D'' are circles of equal altitude. As the circles generally used for navigation have a radius of thousands of miles, a segment a few tens of miles long closely approximates a straight line, as described in Sumner's first use of the method.

a sight of the sun which he reduced with his estimated latitude. Measuring the longitude depended on knowing the time, fron his chronometer, and the latitude accurately. Being uncertain about the latitude he reduced the sight again using 10' greater and 20' greater latitude, plotted the longitude for each one, and he observed that all three resulting positions were located on a line which also happened to pass through Smalls Lighthouse (off the coast of Pembrokeshire in Wales).[3]: 37–39 [4]: 56  He reasoned that he must be located somewhere on that line and that if he set course E.N.E. along the line he should eventually sight the Smalls Light which, in fact he did, in less than an hour.[2] He realized that a single observation of the altitude of a celestial body at a known time determines the position of a line somewhere on which the observer is located. The line of equal altitude is actually a circle, centered on the point on the globe at which the sun (in the case of a solar observation) is directly overhead, the subsolar point. As the circle has a radius of thousands of miles, a segment a few tens of miles long closely approximates a straight line.[4]: 449–453  Sumner published his findings six years later in 1843[3] and this method of resolving a sight for two different latitudes and drawing a "line of position" through the two positions obtained was an important development in celestial navigation. The method was quickly recognized as important and a copy of the pamphlet describing the method was supplied to every ship in the United States Navy.[2]

On 17 Dec 1837, the subsolar position was at Latitude: 23° 23' South, Longitude: 29° 06' East: https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/sunearth.html?day=17&month=12&year=1837&hour=10&min=00&sec=0&n=&ntxt=&earth=0

Selected bibliography

 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).
 * Millward, Roy; Robinson, Adrian. Landscapes of Britain series: The Lake District(1970); South East England (1971); The West Midlands (1971); The South - West Peninsula (1971); The Welsh Marches (1971); Cumbria (1972) South East England-the channel coastlands (1973); The Peak District (1975); The Welsh Borders (1978); Landscapes of North Wales (1978); Upland Britain (1980).

Category:1925 births Category:Alumni of the University of London Category:Academics of the University of Leicester Category:British geographers Category:Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society

Michael Atwell Slater (died 2 February 1842) was a Royal Navy Officer and hydrographic surveyor particularly noted for his survey work in the north-east of Engand and the east of Scotland.

Biography
Slater's date of birth is not known. His father, Joseph Slater of Bromley, and his brother, Joseph Slater Jr. were both artists. Michael Slater entered the Royal Navy in 1811, and in 1816 was surveying in the Mediterranean as an assistant to William Henry Smyth. He started working in Great Britain in 1829, surveying the coasts of Durham, Northumbrland and eastern Scotland. His work led to the publication of over 20 Admiralty Charts, and he contributed to the North Sea Pilot Part 2 - sailing directions for the North and East Coasts of Scotland. He was promoted to Commander in 1837.

Surveying work was used for planning purposes, as well as for navigation. In 1839 Slater gave evidence to a Parliamentary committee considering improvements to the Caledonian Canal. He described the hazards in the approach to the canal through the Moray Firth and the Kessock Narrows, and made recommendations for the location of buoys and lights.

He died on 2 February 1842, falling from Holborn Head, a cliff near Scrabster. very likely by suicide. He left a widow, Antonetta, but had no children. His assistant Henry Charles Otter then took over the survey of Scotland, continuing around to the the west of Scotland.

Life
Nuttall was born in San Francisco, the second of three sons and two daughters of Robert Kennedy Nuttall, a British  doctor who had migrated to San Francisco in 1850, and Magdalena, daughter of John Parrott of San Francisco. In 1865 the family moved to Europe. The children were educated in England, France, Germany and Switzerland. As a result Nuttall spoke German, French, Italian and Spanish, which was extremely useful in his later career. Nuttall returned to the United Sates in 1878, obtaining his M.D. degree from the University of California, Berkeley in 1884. He then travelled with some of his family to Mexico for a year. His sister Zelia became a noted archaeologist and anthropologist of early Mexican cultures.

After a short period working at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore under H. Newell Martin, he went to Göttingen in 1886 working with Carl Flügge and others. His research in Göttingen included studies on mechanisms of immunity. He received his PhD in Zoology in 1890. After a year travelling he returned to Baltimore, working under William H. Welch and becoming Associate in Hygiene in 1892. He worked on the tubercle bacillus and on the bacillus responsible for gas gangrene.

From 1892-1899 Nuttall was in Germany once more, first in Göttingen, then in Berlin, where he worked at the Hygienic Institute (hygienischen Institut). He married Paula von Oertzen-Kittendorf in 1895. Working with Hans Thierfelder he developed methods for rearing guinea pigs under aseptic conditions, with no gut bacteria. This work laid the foundation for the field of Gnotobiosis, the study of organisms with known micro-organism populations. In 1895 he designed a microscopic thermostat for maintaining biological materials under studiy at a constant temperature. This was used for many years. During this period his interest in the role of insects in transmission of disease developed, which would be a major concern for the rest of his life.

In May 1899 Nuttall travelled to Cambridge at the invitation of Clifford Allbutt, Regius Professor of Physic at the University, and gave a series of lectures in bacteriology. In 1900 he was appointed University Lecturer in Bacteriology and Preventive Medicine, and would be based in Cambridge for the rest of his life. He founded and edited the Journal of Hygiene, the first volume being published in 1901. His research at this period was in two main areas, studies of blood, in particular immune reactions, and studies on transmission of disease by arthropods, in particular mosquitoes and malaria with Arthur Shipley. In 1904 Nuttall and Shipley were both elected Fellows of the Royal Society. In the same year he and Patrick Manson established in Cambridge the first Diploma in Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, which continued until 1933.

In 1906 he was elected the first Quick Professor of Biology at Cambridge, a chair established for the study of protozoology. He built a substantial team within the Quick Laboratory working on many areas of parasitology. A major topic was piroplasmosis and related malaria-like parasites transmitted by ticks, mainly in dogs, but also in other animals including humans. The number of published papers on parasitology was steadily increasing, and in 1908 Nuttall founded Parasitology, initially as a supplement to the Journal of Hygiene, but soon as a separate journal. Also in 1908 he was elected a felllow of Magdalen College. During World War I he began to investigate lice. This began in response to the practical problems with lice in the troops, but developed over the next few years into research on their biology and role in disease.

In 1919 Nuttall appealed for funds to create an Institute for Parasitical Research in Cambridge. Percy Molteno and his wife donated the sum of £30,000 for this purpose. The Molteno Institute for Research in Parasitology was opened in in 1921 with Nuttall as its first Director. The Quick Department was transferred to the Molteno Institute.

After the establishment of the Molteno Institute, Nuttall became increasingly occupied with adminisration and fundraising, and published few papers. His wife Paula died in 1922. He resigned the Quick Professorshipin 1931, and became Emeritus Professor of Biology. He died suddenly in December 1937, and was survived by two sons, George and Winfred, and a daughter Carmelita. His ashes were buried in Tunbridge Wells, Kent.

Mechanisms of Immunity
In the early 1880s, Metchnikoff had observed phagocytosis of bacteria and other foreign matter by animal cells including leucocytes in mammmals, and proposed that this was the mechanism by which animals protect themselves against infection. This idea was controversial at the time. Josef von Fodor had shown an apppparent germicidal action of blood against anthrax bacilli, but critics suggested that the bacilli were being entrapped by clotting rather than destroyed. Nuttall, carried out a series of experiments with defibrinated blood from various species, and clearly established the germicidal action of blood in the absence of clotting, and also that the germicidal action was lost after the blood was heated to 55°C. These results formed the basis of the humoural theory of immunity, as opposed to the cellular theory of Metchnikoff, and also stimulated the work that led to the development of antitoxin therapy, particularly for diphtheria and tetanus. Initially the humoural and cellular theories were seen as rival explanations of immunity, but it soon became clear that processes of both kinds occur and complement one another.

Phylogenetic relationships
Darwin's theory of Evolution - descent with modification - provided a theoretical basis for classification in biology, species within a taxon sharing a more or less recent common ancestor. For nearly half a century, the only criteria for classification remained morphological, as had been the case with pre-evolutionary systems such as that of Linnaeus. Classification based on morphology has two main limitations: dificulty in dealing with convergent evolution where similar forms arise in species that are not closely related; and an inability to provide a quantitative measure of relatedness. The precipitin reaction was first described by Kraus in 1897, an insoluble product being formed in an antigen-antibody interaction. The reaction was at first thought to be specific, but it was soon found that while the protein used to generate the antibody gave the strongest reaction, related proteins could give lesser reactions. This finding was developed by Nuttall into a quantitative method in which the amount of precipitate was measured. Using serum from a wide variety of animals he was able to show that the degree of immune reaction between sepcies indicated the relationship between them. In a major work Blood immunity and blood relationship Nuttall and his colleagues presented the data from over 16,000 tests with serum from a wide range of animal species, both vertebrate and invertebrate. This work was the starting point for the field of molecular evolution.

Arthropods as disease vectors
In 1900 Nuttall and Austen published a book reviewing the evidence for transmission of disease by Insects, Arachnids and Myriapods, which included a discussion of the mosquito theory of malaria. Malaria had formerly been common in England, but few if any cases still occurred in 1900. Nuttall and colleagues carried out a survey of the distribution of the Anopheles mosquito in England, showing a concentration in the areas where malaria (Ague) had previously been prevalant. The study suffered from the limitation of not distinguishing between the various species of mosquito, but its presentation, including maps, was one of the first of its kind. Nuttall and Shipley subsequently published a series of papers in The Journal of Hygiene on the structure and biology of Anopheles (1901-1903), which represented the most detailed study on the topic up to that time.

Nuttall began working on ticks and tick-transmitted diseases in 1904. His first studies were with canine piroplasmosis. Piroplasmosis, or babesiosis, unknown in Britain, is a malaria-like disease caused by a protozoan parasite. At one stage in its life-cycle the parasite is pyriform (pear-shaped), hence the name piroplasmosis. It affects a wide variety of wild and domestic animals. Human cases occur, but are uncommon. Smith and Kilborne identified the parasite in Texas cattle fever, and established that it was transmitted by ticks, the first proven case of arthropod disease transmission. In a series of papers published with Graham-Smith in The Journal of Hygiene (1904-1907) Nuttall described the nature of the disease and the multiplication of the parasite in the blood of dogs. Subsequent work with Seymour Hadwen led to the discovery that trypan blue was an effective treatment both in dogs and cattle. This was a finding of great economic importance, and trypan blue became the standard treatment for piroplasmosis/babesiosis for many years.

Nuttall made extensive studies on ticks in collaboration with Cecil Warburton L.E. Robinson and F.W. Cooper. This led to numerous papers and an exhaustive monograph that appeared in three parts between 1908 and 1915. The publications, mostly in the jurnal Parasitology cover the anatomy, biology and classification of ticks, as well as observations on the diseases they transmit, including "tick paralysis". In the course of this work, Nuttall accumulated a very large collection of ticks from many parts of the world. The collection is now in the Natural history museum.

Another arthropod, that became increasingly important during World War I was the louse. Nuttall, carried out a series of studies that, as with many of his other researches, combined a theoretical and zoological approach with practical concerns.

His writings include some 150 articles in professional journals.

He published:
 * Hygienic Measures in Relation to Infectious Diseases (1903)
 * Blood Immunity and Blood Relationship (1904), establishing the identification of different kinds of blood''
 * The Bacteriology of Diphtheria (1908), with George Stuart Graham-Smith and others
 * Ticks (1908 et. seq.), with C. Warburton and others
 * The Drug Treatment of Canine Piroplasmosis (1910)
 * Russian Ixodoidea (1912)
 * The Training and Status of Public Health Officers in the United Kingdom (1913)

Parasites named for him

 * Nuttallia &mdash; Small protozoan parasites found in the red blood corpuscles of horses and dogs.
 * N. equi, a species causing hemoglobinuric fever of horses in South Africa. It is probably transmitted by the tick Rhipicephalux everti.  Called also Babesia equi and B. caballi.
 * N. gibso'ni is found in dogs.


 * Nuttalliellidae &mdash; Tick family found in southern Africa
 * Nuttaliella, Tick genus within the family Nuttalliellidae

Early life and education
Graham-Smith was the son of a colonel in the Indian Army. He attended Clifton College and then studied at Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he played a lot of cricket and graduated with a B.A. in 1897. He then studied medicine at Guy's Hospital, London, obtaining his M.B. B.Chir. in 1901. He returned to Cambridge, to the Department of Pathology, and took the Diploma in Public Health in 1902. In 1904 he became the John Lucas Walter student, a scholarship awarded for original research in pathology, and obtained his M.D. in 1905.

Diphtheria
In 1901, Graham-Smith was enrolled in a pathology class taught by Louis Cobbett in Cambridge. In the spring of that year there was a local outbreak of diptheria, and the class followed the progress of Cobbett's work on identifying organisms from swabs, innoculating animals, and dealing with patients, doctors and sanitary inspectors. In the summer of the same year, there was an outbreak of diphthera in Colchester, and Graham-Smith went there as Cobbett's assistant. His work there was the basis for his first publication, which formed part of his M.D. Thesis. He describes the measures taken to deal with the outbreak, which included treatment with antitoxin, bacteriological testing of patients and contacts, isolation of patients until the were shown to be free of infection, and closure of schools followed by exclusion of infected pupils once they re-opened. The outbreak declined in the autumn of 1901.

Graham-Smith continued to work on diptheria for the next few years. In 1903 and 1904 he published two papers presenting evidence, both from a review of the literature and his own and Cobbett's work, on the incidence of infection in patients, contacts without symptoms, and those with no exposure, and on the implications of these findings for disease control measures. He emphasised the importance of testing the virulence of the bacilli found, as well as identification based on morphology and culture properties. He concluded that virulent strains were rarely found in healthy peple without known contact with patients diagnosed with diptheria, a finding that supported a policy based on isolating and testing diphtheria contacts.

Collaboration with George Nuttall
During this period, Graham-Smith developed a close working relationship with George Nuttall, who had been appointed University Lecturer in Bacteriology and Preventive Medicine in 1900. They co-edited The Bacteriology of Diphtheria, which appeared in 1908, the first major work on this topic to be published in Britain. Nuttall and Graham-Smith also worked together on a series of studies of canine Piroplasma canis, now known as Babesia canis, a protozoan parasite that invades the red blood cells of dogs, and is transmitted by ticks. Schetters (2019), reviewing the literature on this parasite in dogs, re-tabulated Graham-Smith's data on morbid anatomy, and confirmed his key finding of an accumulation of infected red blood cells in the capillaries. Another infection of the blood was first described by Graham-Smith in moles. The organism, a Gram-negative bacterium, was named Grahamella in his honour, but is now classified as Bartonella.

Graham-Smith's work in straightforward zoology (i.e. not involving pathology) began with a collaboration with Nuttall on a project to assess the degree of relatededness between animal groups (blood relationshhips) on the basis of immunological cross-reactions between serum proteins. This work, published as Blood Immunity and Blood-Relationships in 1904 represents the beginning of the modern field of molecular systematics. Graham-Smith contributed section VIII: Blood-relationship among the lower vertebrata and arthropoda, etc., as indicated by 2500 tests with precipitating antisera.

In 1906, Nuttall became Reader in Hygiene at Cambridge Unniversity. In the following year, Graham-Smith was appointed Lecturer in Hygiene, a position he held until 1923, when he succeded Nuttall as Reader.

Flies
Graham-Smith's research on flies, which became a life-long interest, combined both pathological and zoological aspects: flies as vectors of disease, and as organisms of interest in their own right. His first published works on this topic, local government health reports, dealt with pathology, showing that flies in the wild could pick up infections from their environment, and that artificially infected flies could transmit infections to the materials that they fed from. In subsequent publications he dealt with the morphology, anatomy, physiology and behaviour of flies, as well as their role in human disease, and also diseases and parasites that affect flies. He made extensive observations of Empusa disease, a fungal parasite. The fungus spreads through the body of an infected fly, which becomes attached to a leaf, usually by the head. The fungus digests the body of the fly, then disperses its spores. Another important group of parasites, generally other insects, deposit their eggs within the larvae or pupae of flies. Graham-Smith showed that these are common, adults of the parasitic species frequently emerging from fly pupae collected in the wild. He also carried out laboratory studies, for example describing the egg-laying behaviour of the wasp Melittobia acasta.

In the late 19th- and early 20th-Centuries, summer diarrhoea was an important cause of death, particularly in children. The incidence of the condition was closely related to air temperature, and opinions differed as to mechanism. Some thought that temperature was directly resonsible, while others considered that temperature acted though another factor, for example increasing the number of flies that could transmit disease. Graham-Smith devoted a chapter of his 1913 book Flies in relation to disease : non-bloodsucking flies to summer diarrhoea. He reviewed the epidemiogical and bacterological evidence, including results from his own studies on bacteria harboured by flies caught in the wild. He concluded that the evidence was strongly suggestive of a connection between flies and summer diarrhoea. However he noted that there was no clear evidence of the sources of infection that the flies transmitted. In later epidemiological work he provided such evidence. In the years after World War I deaths from summer diarrhoea steadily declined. Presenting data over the period from 1901-1937, and allowing for differences in temperature in different yaers, he showed that the death rate closely matched the numbers of horse-drawn vehicles. At the beginning of the period, the death rate for children under one year of age in England and Wales was 25.4 per thousand live births, at the end it was 5.3. The number of licenses for hose-drawn vehicles fell from 411,334 to 14,195. This strongly suggested that horse manure was a principal source of the infection transmitted by flies.

Teaching and administration
Graham-Smith was active in teaching throughout his career, teaching bacteriology in both the Diploma of Public Health and from 1924 in the Natural Sciences Tripos. His administrative duties included Assessor to the Regius Professor of Medicine (1907-1919) and Secretary to the Faculty Board of Medicine (1919-1933). From 1939 ne was editor of the Journal of Hygiene.

Honours
In 1919 Graham-Smith was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.

Personal life and death
In September 1910, Graham-Smith married Violet Leith-Ross of Aberdeenshire. He died suddenly on 30 August 1950, in Cambridge. He was survived by his wife and a son.

Early career
Denham entered the navy in 1809. He served on HMS Vulture (1803) from 1810-1814, initially under Captain Martin White, engaged in survey work in the Channel Islands. He became midshipman while serving on Vulture. He continued to work on the Channel Islands survey until 1817, again under White. In 1817, White took command of the survey vessel HMS Shamrock (1812) and Denhham worked under him on surveys in the English Channel and Ireland. He was promoted to lieutenant in 1822. From October 1827, he was lieutenant-commander in HMS Linnet (1817), surveying the coast of France. From September 1828 to March 1835, he surveyed the Bristol Channel, and the ports of Liverpool and Milford.

In the early 1830s the expansion of the Port of Liverpool was being severly restricted by the silting of the channels leading to the port. The Dock Trustees asked the Admiralty for help, and in 1833 Denham was assigned to survey the area. He carried out the most thorough survey of the Mersey and its approaches to date, and analysed the volumes and patterns of flow and the quantities of solid material transported by each tide. He argued that if existing channels were becoming blocked the tidal flow must be going somewhere else. He was able to identify and chart a new channel, and mark it wit buoys. This greatly increased the volume of shipping the port could handle. He was awarded the Freedom of the Borough of Liverpool in 1834, and in 1834 became Resident Marine Surveyor to the port. In 1837, when shoaling became problematic on the outer part of the channel, he introduced a system for dredging with a steamer towing towing a set of spiked cables spaced along an oak beam. This continued in use until 1890. On 28 February 1839 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society. According to Mountfield (1953) "it was Denham's work during the 'thirties and 'forties which made Liverpool the great terminal port which the rapidly swelling trade of industrial England so urgently required."

Denham's time at Liverpool ended in discord, with Denham frustrated at the lack of resources available. This came to a head in the great storm of 1839 when lightships as well as buays were torn from there moorings, and Denham saw himself as prevented from hiring boats and crews to remedy the situation. Another source of tension was that at least some members of the committee felt that Denham was exceeding his brief by advocating changes in the way the port approaches were managed, proposing a body with authority over the entire river estuary, not just of the port. His appointment was terminated in 1837. He remained in the area, being appointed by the Admiralty to survey the coasts of Lancashire and Cumberland. He published many of the results of his work in a set of Sailing direction for the area, published in 1840.

From 15 January 1842 he was commander (second in charge) in HMS Lucifer (1837), commanded by Frederick William Beechey, surveying the coast of Ireland. On 30 July 1845, he was made commander of HMS Avon (1837), surveying the west coast of Africa.

Bryan Hugh St. John O’Neill (7 August 1905 - 24 October 1954) was a British archaeologist who became Chief Inspector of Ancient Monuments for England and Wales.

Bryan O'Neil was born in London. His father was Charles Valentime O'Neil, and his mother was Mabel Meliora (nee Rowe) He was educated at Merchant Taylor's School, at that time in London, and St John's College, Oxford. He obtained his degree in classics in 1928. He was a member of the Oxford University Archaeological Society, becoming its president in 1926. In 1939 he married Helen Donovan of Bourton-on-the-Water, daughter of Charles Donovan MD, who was noted for her work on Gloucestershire archaeology.

In 1930 O'Neil was appointed to the Office of Works, later the Ministry of Works as an Assistant Inspector of Ancient Monuments, with responsibilities in Wales. He became Inspector for Wales in 1934, and Chief Inspector for England and Wales in 1945. As Inspector, he was responsible both for the care and protection of ancient monuments in the guardianship of the state, and for scheduling of monuments in private hands that were worthy of protection. During the war, he remained in London, and was much involved with the archaeological consequences of war damage and the organisation of rescue excavations. As Chief Inspector he was involved with the drafting of the 1953 Historic Buildings Act and the setting up Historic Building Councils.

O'Neil was extremely active in field archaeology, publishing over 200 papers. He was noted for his expertise in the analysis of structural sequences, evident both in his work on iron-age sites in the Welsh borderland, for example Titterstone Clee Hill Fort, Breidden Hill Fort, and the Ffridd Faldwyn Camp, as well as in his work on later mediaeval stone castles, such as Dartmouth and Rushen. At Dartmouth, the ‘Guntower’ building of 1481-1494 is the earliest surviving English coastal fortress specifically built to carry guns. His interest in early artillery fortification developed, and he became a leading expert in this field. He published a study of the work of Stefan von Haschenperg, an egineer to King Hentry VIII, and his book Castles and Cannon; A study of Early Artillery Fortifications in England, has become a standard work. This was published in 1960, six years after his premature death at the age of 49. Other important archaeological investigations included studies of the town layout of Llanidloes, the castle site at Castle Caereinion, and the excavations and survey of the Montgomery Town Wall. He also worked on the fortifications at Rhodes.

O'Neil wrote a series of officlal guide-books to ancient monuments, mostly of castles, published by H.M. Stationery Office, including: and also some more general introductions:
 * Dartmouth Castle (1934)
 * Criccieth Castle (1934)
 * Peveril Castle (1934)
 * Clifford's Tower, York Castle (1936)
 * Talley Abbey, Carmarthenshire (1938)
 * Castle Rushen, Isle of Man (1947)
 * Scalloway Castle, Shetland (1949)
 * Ancient monuments of the Isles of Scilly (1949)
 * Walmer Castle (1949)
 * Audley End, Essex (1950)
 * The Brochs of Mousa and Clickhimin (1950)
 * Castle Cornet, Guernsey (1950)
 * Deal Castle (1952)
 * Caerlaverock Castle (1952)
 * Regional Guide to ancient monuments in North Wales (1939)
 * History of Britain in Stone (1950)
 * Castles: An Introduction to the Castles of England and Wales (1954)

O'Neil was interested in coins, becoming a Fellow of the Royal Numismatic Society. He catalogued the finds from a number of excavations, particularly of Roman coins. These included the Terling Treasure, consisting of Roman gold and silver coins and rings discovered at Terling Place, Essex, and the Sproxton hoard of silver Roman coins from Sproxton, Leicestershire. Both of these collections had been discovered over a hundred years earlier. O'Neil was secretary and editor of the Congress of Archaeological Societies, predecessor of the Council for British Archaeology and from 1935 a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London of which he became Vice-President from 1947-1950.

1623-1906
John Langton (1600-1645/6) was a merchant who was mayor of Bristol in 1628, and a Warden of the Society of Merchant Adventurers (1630-31). The house on Welsh Back was built between 1623-8,

The State Room, which would have been the main showpiece for Langton as mayor, is notable for its fireplace, its doorway, and its plaster ceiling. The fireplace has double fluted ionic columns supporting a wide frieze in three parts. The centre section, with a royal coat of arms, projects slightly, supported by corbels. The outer sections have caryatid pilasters. The doorway is of mahogany, a rare material in England at this time, with columns inlaid with ivory and mother-of-pearl. A statue of Justice occupies the main panel.

The house remined in the Langton family until around 1730. In 1732 it was occupied by Arthur Taylor, a distiller and chief magistrate. In 1779 it was the residence of John Davies, a tobacconist. The house fell into disrepair, and was used as a tobacco factory from about 1816 until its demolition in 1906.

Removal and preservation 1906
Most of the interior fittings were removed and installed in New Place, Shirrell Heath, Hampshire, a house designed by Edwin Lutyens specifically for this purpose. The house was commissioned by Mrs A. S. Franklyn in 1904, who had inherited Langton House from her father, a partner in the tobacco firm Franklyn, Morgan and Davy The fittings included the State Room, the less elaborate Dining Room, and a staircase with heraldic beasts surmounting the newel posts. Another fireplace from Langton House is to be found in the Assize Court in Bristol.

Sea also

 * International Hydrographic Organization