User:Ktreat88/sandbox

Inserting bold text. This will be a helpful tool to use in the future.

Article Evaluation - Killer Whales

 * The article refers to Killer Whales as being a member of the oceanic dolphin family and the Delphinidae family. Referencing just the Delphinidae family would be more accurate and less confusing to readers
 * Checked a few of the citation links, which all worked and provided accurate information
 * The organization of the article flowed well, however I would recommend putting the conservation section as the last section instead of the relationship to humans section
 * It is listed as a featured article
 * Most of the edits from the article's talk page refer to external edits
 * It has been listed as a level 4 vital article
 * It is apart of multiple WikiProjects
 * The article not only goes into the taxonomy, conservation, feeding, and behavior of killer whales, but it also describes the interaction/relationship humans have with them, in addition to various viewpoints
 * The article is neutral and provides citations/sources for where specific viewpoints are indicated (captivity viewpoints)
 * Provides many links in the text for readers to use and explore
 * Sources are reliable

Picking an Article
Leopard seal
 * Add more references/sources to the article, as well as more information under the existing sections. Also I might create new sections to make the article more clear to locate information.

Australian Whale Sanctuary
 * Add more about what species frequent this area/which are being protected, the history/policies of the sanctuary, and more general information.

Elephant seal
 * Add more about their diet, body type, taxonomy/related species, general description, predators, and adaptations to their environment. I will also add some new sections to make the article flow better and to locate information easier.
 * This article lacks information a lot of information related to their taxonomy, diet/feeding behaviors, predators, adaptations, human interaction, and other aspects of their physiology. I will also add more information into the description section regarding sexual dimorphism and the differences between the Northern and Southern species.

Elephant Seal
Sources:

Princeton Encyclopedia of Mammals: Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses

The Elephant Seal - National Institute of Oceanography

Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide (Carole and Phil Adams)

Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals Thewissen, J. G. M., Würsig, Bernd G., Perrin, W. F. 2009

Citations:

Adams, Carole, and Phil Adams. Elephant Seals. Central Coast Press, 1999.

Laws, R M. “The Elephant Seal.” F. I. D. S. Scientific Reports, vol. 13, May 1954, p. 21.

Macdonald, David W. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Mammals. Princeton University Press, 2009.

Thewissen, J. M., Würsig, B. G., & Perrin, W. F. (2009). Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Amsterdam: Academic Press.

Draft - Editing
Current Lead Section:

Elephant seals are large, oceangoing earless seals in the genus Mirounga. The two species, the northern elephant seal (M. angustirostris) and the southern elephant seal (M. leonina), were both hunted to the brink of extinction by the end of the 19th century, but the numbers have since recovered.

The northern elephant seal, somewhat smaller than its southern relative, ranges over the Pacific coast of the U.S., Canada and Mexico. The most northerly breeding location on the Pacific Coast is at Race Rocks, at the southern tip of Vancouver Island in the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The southern elephant seal is found in the Southern Hemisphere on islands such as South Georgia and Macquarie Island, and on the coasts of New Zealand, South Africa, and Argentina in the Peninsula Valdés, which is the fourth-largest elephant seal colony in the world. In southern Chile, there is a small colony of 120 animals at Jackson Bay, Admiralty Sound (Seno Almirantazgo), Tierra del Fuego. The oldest known unambiguous elephant seal fossils are fragmentary fossils of an unnamed member of the tribe Miroungini described from the late Pliocene Petane Formation of New Zealand. Teeth originally identified as representing an unnamed species of Mirounga have been found in South Africa, and dated to the Miocene epoch; however Boessenecker & Churchill (2016) considered these teeth to be almost certainly misidentified odontocete teeth.

Elephant seals breed annually and are seemingly faithful to colonies that have established breeding areas.

New Lead:

Elephant seals are true seals belonging to the order Pinnipedia and genus Mirounga (Princeton Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). True seals are characterized by having reduced limbs and no external ears. Elephant seals are unique in the fact that males have a proboscis, and overall, males and females are quite large compared to other members in this order (Elephant Seals: A comprehensive Guide). Although awkard on land, the reduction of their limbs helps them swim with ease through the marine environment (Princeton Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). There are two species of elephant seal, which include the the northern elephant seal (M. angustirostris) and the southern elephant seal (M. leonina) (Comprehensive Guide).

These seals are extreme divers and dives have been recorded up to depths of 2,388 meters (Check physiology section). Elephant seals have found a unique niche at sea and spend 90% of their time underwater searching for their favorite prey, which include squid and fish (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). In order to conserve energy and forage efficiently, they have a vast number of adaptations including, specialized eyes, hearing structures, and metabolic processes (Princeton and check physiology section).

Elephant seals have broad breeding distributions and an intense breeding season. Males have a prominent social structure when it comes time to mate, with the dominating male always having the best pick of the territory and females (Comprehensive Guide). Both males and females will fast during this process, making it very energy intensive (Comprehensive Guide). Fasting also occurs when these seals molt once a year to shed their outer most layer of hair and skin (Comprehensive Guide).

The main predators of elephant seals are great whites and orcas (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

Description on Wikipedia Page:

Elephant seals take their name from the large proboscis of the adult male (bull), which resembles an elephant's trunk. The bull's proboscis is used in producing extraordinarily loud roaring noises, especially during the mating season. More importantly, however, the nose acts as a sort of rebreather, filled with cavities designed to reabsorb moisture from their exhalations. This is important during the mating season when the seals do not leave the beach to feed, and must conserve body moisture as there is no incoming source of water. They are colossally large in comparison with other pinnipeds, with southern elephant seal bulls typically reaching a length of 5 m (16 ft) and a weight of 3,000 kg (6,600 lb), and are much larger than the adult females (cows), with some exceptionally large males reaching up to 6 m (20 ft) in length and weighing 4,000 kg (8,800 lb); cows typically measure about 3 m (10 ft) and 900 kg (2,000 lb). Northern elephant seal bulls reach a length of 4.3 to 4.8 m (14 to 16 ft) and the heaviest weigh about 2,500 kg (5,500 lb).

New material that will be incorporated:

Elephant seals are marine mammals classified under the order Pinnipedia, which in Latin, means feather or fin footed (Princeton Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). Elephant seals are considered true seals and fall under the family Phocidae (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Phocids (true seals), are characterized by having no external ear and reduced limbs (Elephant Seals: A comprehensive Guide). The reduction in their limbs helps them be more streamline and move easily in the water, however it makes navigating on land a bit difficult because they cannot turn their hind flippers forward to walk like the Otariids (Princeton Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). Also, the hind flipper of elephant seals have a lot of surface area, which helps propel them in the water (Princeton Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals).

Sexual dimorphism is prominently seen in elephant seals due to the fact that male elephant seals can weigh up to 10 times more than females (Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). Also, males have a large proboscis, which is considered a secondary sexual characteristic that helps during mating season (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

The northern and southern elephant seal can be distinguished by looking at various external features. On average, the southern elephant seal tends to be larger than the northern species (Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). Adult male elephant seals belonging to the northern species tend to have a larger proboscis and thick chest area with a red coloration compared to the southern species (Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). Females do not have the large proboscis and can be distinguished between species by looking at their nose characteristics (Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). Southern females tend to have smaller blunt nose compared to northern females (Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals).

When elephant seals are born, they can weigh up to 80 pounds and reach lengths up to 4 feet (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

Elephant seals spend the majority of their time (90%) underwater (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). These seals are solitary animals when traveling out to sea and can cover 60 miles a day (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

Combined Material:

Elephant seals are marine mammals classified under the order Pinnipedia, which in Latin, means feather or fin footed (Princeton Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). Elephant seals are considered true seals and fall under the family Phocidae (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Phocids (true seals), are characterized by having no external ear and reduced limbs (Elephant Seals: A comprehensive Guide). The reduction in their limbs helps them be more streamline and move easily in the water (Princeton Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). However, it makes navigating on land a bit difficult because they cannot turn their hind flippers forward to walk like the Otariids (Princeton Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). In addition, the hind flipper of elephant seals have a lot of surface area, which helps propel them in the water (Princeton Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). Elephant seals spend the majority of their time (90%) underwater in search of food and can cover 60 miles a day when they head out to sea (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

Elephant seals get their name from the large proboscis of the adult male (bull), which resembles an elephant's trunk. The bull's proboscis is used in producing extraordinarily loud roaring noises, especially during the mating season.They are colossally large in comparison with other pinnipeds, with southern elephant seal bulls typically reaching a length of 5 m (16 ft) and a weight of 3,000 kg (6,600 lb), and are much larger than the adult females (cows), with some exceptionally large males reaching up to 6 m (20 ft) in length and weighing 4,000 kg (8,800 lb); cows typically measure about 3 m (10 ft) and 900 kg (2,000 lb). Northern elephant seal bulls reach a length of 4.3 to 4.8 m (14 to 16 ft) and the heaviest weigh about 2,500 kg (5,500 lb). When elephant seals are born, they can weigh up to 80 pounds and reach lengths up to 4 feet (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Sexual dimorphism is prominently seen in elephant seals due to the fact that male elephant seals can weigh up to 10 times more than females (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Also, the large proboscis, which is considered a secondary sexual characteristic, helps males assert dominance during mating season (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

The northern and southern elephant seal can be distinguished by looking at various external features. On average, the southern elephant seal tends to be larger than the northern species (Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). Adult male elephant seals belonging to the northern species tend to have a larger proboscis and thick chest area with a red coloration compared to the southern species (Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). Females do not have the large proboscis and can be distinguished between species by looking at their nose characteristics (Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). Southern females tend to have smaller blunt nose compared to northern females (Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals).

Females have a life span of about 20 years, where males can live to be 14 years old (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

Breeding Distribution:

The southern elephant seals have a wide range, with breeding sites scattered all over the sub-antarctic, up to Patagonia and the Falkland Islands (Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals). The northern species has a smaller range, which extends from Northern California to the Baja California Peninsula located in Mexico (Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals).

Breeding Season:

Male elephant seals reach maturity around 5-6 years of age (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide) However, these males will not reach physical maturity and be ready to mate until they are about 9 years old ( Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

Dominant males arrive at the breeding site in November, and will spend 3 months on the beach fasting to ensure that they can mate with as many females as possible (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Male elephant seals use fighting, vocal noises, and different positions to determine who will be deemed the dominate male (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide & The Elephant Seal: National Institute of Oceanography). When males reach 8 to 9 years of age, they have developed a pronounced long nose, in addition to a chest shield, which is thickened skin in their chest area (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Showing off their noses, making loud vocalizations, and altering their posture are a few ways males show off their dominance (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). When battles come into play, seals will stand tall and ram themselves into one another using their chest plates and sharp teeth (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). When the pregnant females arrive, the dominating males have already selected their territory on the beach (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Females cluster in groups called harems, which could consist up to 50 or more females surrounding one alpha male, depending on the topography of the beach (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Outside of these groups, a beta bull is normally roaming around (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). The beta bull helps the alpha by preventing other males accessing the females (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). In return, the beta bull might have an opportunity to mate with one of the females while the alpha is occupied (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Birth on average only takes a few minutes and the mother and pup have a connection due to each other's unique smell and sound (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). The moms will fast and nurse up to 28 days, providing their pups with rich milk (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Some pups who have had a successful weaning period will weigh up to 330 pounds (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). The last two to three days however, females will be ready to mate and the dominate males will pounce on the opportunity (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). During this exhaustive process, males and females lose up to a third of their body weight during the breeding season (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). The gestation period for females is 11 months, and the pupping seasons lasts from mid December through the middle of February (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). The new pups will spend up to 10 more additional weeks on land learning how to swim and dive (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

Diet:

Females tend to feed on deep water squid species, while males tend to feed on prey located near the bottom along continental shelves, which can include cephalopods and bottom dwelling fish (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). While consuming prey, these seals will eat their chosen prey item either whole or in large chunks (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Large intestines help elephant seals digest their food quickly (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

Molting:

Once a year, Elephant Seals go through a process called molting where they shed the outer layer of hair and skin (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). This molting process takes up to a month to fully complete (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). When it comes time to molt, they will haul out on land to shed their outer layer, and will not consume any food during this time (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). The females and juveniles will molt first, followed by the sub adult males, and finally the large mature males (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

 Physiology: 

Physiology on Wikipedia page:

Elephant seals spend up to 80% of their lives in the ocean. They can hold their breath for more than 100 minutes – longer than any other noncetacean mammal. Elephant seals dive to 1,550 m beneath the ocean's surface (the deepest recorded dive of an elephant seal is 2,388 m (7,835 ft) by a southern elephant seal). The average depth of their dives is about 300 to 600 m (980 to 1,970 ft), typically for around 20 minutes for females and 60 minutes for males, as they search for their favorite foods, which are skates, rays, squid, octopuses, eels, small sharks and large fish. Their stomachs also often contain gastroliths. While excellent swimmers, they are also capable of rapid movement on land (Need to delete).

Elephant seals are shielded from extreme cold by their blubber, more so than by fur. Their hair and outer layers of skin molt in large patches. The skin has to be regrown by blood vessels reaching through the blubber. When molting occurs, the seal is susceptible to the cold, and must rest on land, in a safe place called a "haul out". Northern males and young adults haul out during June to July to molt; northern females and immature seals during April to May.

Elephant seals have a very large volume of blood, allowing them to hold a large amount of oxygen for use when diving. They have large sinuses in their abdomens to hold blood and can also store oxygen in their muscles with increased myoglobin concentrations in muscle. In addition, they have a larger proportion of oxygen-carrying red blood cells. These adaptations allow elephant seals to dive to such depths and remain underwater for up to two hours.

Milk produced by elephant seals is remarkably high in milkfat compared to other mammals. After an initially lower state, it rises to over 50% milkfat (human breast milk is about 4% milkfat, and cow milk is about 3.5% milkfat).

New Physiology Material:

Elephant seals can dive to depths between 1,000-2,000 feet, with on average, dives lasting around 20 minutes (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide) They spend only brief amounts of time at the surface to rest in between dives (2-3 minutes) (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Females tend to dive a bit deeper due to their prey source (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide)

Elephant seals are also able to slow down their heartbeat (bradycardia) and divert blood flow from the external areas of the body to important core organs (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). In addition, they can also slow down their metabolism (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Elephant seals are also able to slow down their heartbeat (bradycardia) and divert blood flow from the external areas of the body to important core organs (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). In addition, they can also slow down their metabolism (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).. Elephant Seals also have a helpful feature in their bodies known as the countercurrent heat exchanger to help conserve energy and prevent heat loss (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). In this system, arteries and veins are organized in a way to maintain a constant body temperature by having the cool blood flowing to the heart warmed by blood going to external areas of the animal (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

Combined Physiology Material:

Elephant seals spend up to 80% of their lives in the ocean. They can hold their breath for more than 100 minutes – longer than any other noncetacean mammal. Elephant seals dive to 1,550 m beneath the ocean's surface (the deepest recorded dive of an elephant seal is 2,388 m (7,835 ft) by a southern elephant seal). The average depth of their dives is about 300 to 600 m (980 to 1,970 ft), typically for around 20 minutes for females and 60 minutes for males, as they search for their favorite foods, which can include skates, rays, squid, octopuses, eels, small sharks and large fish. They spend only brief amounts of time at the surface to rest in between dives (2-3 minutes) (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Females tend to dive a bit deeper due to their prey source (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide)

Elephant seals are shielded from extreme cold by their blubber, more so than by fur. Their hair and outer layers of skin molt in large patches. The skin has to be regrown by blood vessels reaching through the blubber. When molting occurs, the seal is susceptible to the cold, and must rest on land, in a safe place called a "haul out". Northern males and young adults haul out during June to July to molt; northern females and immature seals during April to May.

Elephant seals have a very large volume of blood, allowing them to hold a large amount of oxygen for use when diving. They have large sinuses in their abdomens to hold blood and can also store oxygen in their muscles with increased myoglobin concentrations in muscle. In addition, they have a larger proportion of oxygen-carrying red blood cells. These adaptations allow elephant seals to dive to such depths and remain underwater for up to two hours.

Elephant seals are also able to slow down their heartbeat (bradycardia) and divert blood flow from the external areas of the body to important core organs (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). In addition, they can also slow down their metabolism while they are preforming deep dives (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

Elephant seals have a helpful feature in their bodies known as the countercurrent heat exchanger to help conserve energy and prevent heat loss (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). In this system, arteries and veins are organized in a way to maintain a constant body temperature by having the cool blood flowing to the heart warmed by blood going to external areas of the animal (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

Milk produced by elephant seals is remarkably high in milkfat compared to other mammals. After an initially lower state, it rises to over 50% milkfat (human breast milk is about 4% milkfat, and cow milk is about 3.5% milkfat).

Adaptations:

Elephant seals have large circular eyes that have more rods than cones to help them see in low light conditions while they are diving (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide, ). These seals also posses a structure called the tapetum lucidum, which helps their vision by having light reflected back to the retina to allow more chances for photoreceptors to detect light (Princeton Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals).

Their body is covered in blubber, which helps them keep warm and reduce drag while they are swimming (Elephant Seals: A comprehensive Guide). The shape of their body helps them maneuver well in the water, but limits their movement on land (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Elephant seals also have the ability to fast for long periods of time while breeding or molting (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Another unique adaptation, the turbinate process, is very beneficial when these seals are fasting, breeding, molting, or hauling out (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). This unique nasal structure recycles moisture when they breath and helps prevent water loss (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

Elephant seals have external whiskers called vibrissae to help them locate prey and navigate their environment (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). The vibrissae are connected to blood vessels, nerves, and muscles making them an important sensing tool (Princeton).

Due to evolutionary changes, their ear has been modified to work extremely well underwater (Princeton). The structure of the inner ear helps amplify incoming sounds, and allows these seals to have good directional hearing due to the isolation of the inner ear (Princeton). In addition to these adaptations, tissues in the ear canal allow the pressure in the ear to be adjusted while these seals preform their deep dives (Princeton).

Predators:

The main predator of elephant seals is the great white shark (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). Orcas are also another predator to elephant seals (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

Cookie cutter sharks can even take notorious bites out of their skin (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). These 10-12 inch long sharks feed by twisting circular holes out of the elephant seal's blubber and skin (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide).

Human Interaction:

To safely admire and view these animals, one should go to designated viewing areas (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). If you ever find yourself on the beach with these animals, stay a respective distance away, and never cross the area between them and the water. (Elephant Seals: A Comprehensive Guide). The males can become quite aggressive during the breeding season and crossing their paths would be very dangerous.