User:Kwamikagami/sandbox

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Additional lexical sets - the PASTA / ATLATL vowel (æ~ɑː) for loan [a] (for loan [aː], both countries use the PALM vowel), the ROSES vowel (schwi ᵻ) and the WILLOW vowel (schwu ᵿ~ɵ).

For the first, a monosyllabic key word would be best, but the only one I can think of is Mann, which wouldn't be clear in speach.

fontname:ss06&cv03 Stylistic set (1 to 20) and character variant

Suggestions for phonemic distinctions that don't have distinct letters.

Dental consonants
all contrastive, esp. if 'dental' includes laminal. [Alan Hall (1997) Phonology of Coronals, Rhotics, claims /r/ may be dental or alveolar, but there can be no contrast within a language; vd. Fig. 25.] In the 1989 Kiel convention, dental characters were proposed for (ignoring, which are contrastive in e.g. Basque laminal dental vs apical alveolar). The flap is thus probably not needed, and the approximant  has likewise been found unnecessary despite many requests. The proposed characters were the alveolars with a left arm – thus ⟨ƌ⟩ for and  &thinsp; for  derived from Pullum. However, while there was 30% support for dental characters in the run-up to the convention (8/25 respondents), the proposed characters got only 4% support (1 respondent – presumably the proposer). They were not very distinct from the other t- and d-based letters of the IPA, so better to use Greek letters. We may want to make an exception for dental ⟨λ⟩, due to the potential of confusing it with palatal ⟨ʎ⟩ (both occur in Australian languages, for example). ⟨ⱹ⟩ may be a convenient graphic substitute for the lateral flap, if that's ever needed.

ᵷ ɢ

ꝿ ʁ

ϱ ʀ

Protruded front vowels & compressed back vowels
Diacritics may be used, but e.g. ⟨yʷ⟩ and ⟨uᵝ⟩ suggest an off-glide, which may be inaccurate, and are visually distracting. The three-way distinction here is unrounded, inrounded (compressed) and outrounded (protruded/pursed). A four-way distinction of horizontal compression alone vs vertical and horizontal compression is found (e.g. vs  and  vs ), but this is probably more detail than distinct letters would be useful for. If they were needed, ⟨ɯ&#795;⟩, ⟨ư⟩ and ⟨ɰ&#795;⟩, ⟨w&#795;⟩ might be used.

Adequate click influx symbols
The current (Lepsius) click letters are incompatible with IPA prosodic notation, Wells has complained that the dental click is frequently confused with el, and publishers do not like to use them with IPA delimiters. The older (Jones) letters were better, but too limited for phonetic transcription, and Jones misanalyzed two of the places of articulation ('retroflex' for alveolar and 'velar' for palatal). An adequate set of symbols would distinguish not just place of articulation and shape of the tongue but whether the click release was abrupt or fricated. This would require more than the six phonemic distinctions or the current five letters designed for them. Because two articulations of the tongue are required, the tongue shapes of coronal clicks do not correlate perfectly to those of plosives, and separate letters are used for clicks where the same IPA letter would be used for plosives (e.g. dental vs alveolar).

Whether ʃ &thinsp;= or π is used might depend on whether the click was analyzed as basically a ǃ-click or a ǂ-click. $⟨ꜫ⟩$ would be a convenient alt for turned-ξ, or as a third letter if both place (alveolar vs palatal) and manner (affricated vs abrupt) need to be distinguished, or for the click that's been described as intermediate between and.

⟨ꞇ⟩ would really be a better letter for a dental click, if it's not used for a dental plosive – it resembles Zulu c, graphically it's half a ξ (paralleling the Lepsius letters), and it's the basis for ⟨ᵹ⟩. If pulmonic dental consonants are needed, perhaps ⟨ʇ⟩ and ⟨ꞇ⟩ could swap places.

As with labial-velar consonants, two letters are required to write a click. Distinguish velar-alveolar from uvular-alveolar, and simultaneously released  from delayed release. As the click letter is undefined for voicing or nasality, that information may be carried solely by the second letter. For velar clicks: voiceless oral, voiced oral , voiced nasal , voiceless nasal.

Tie bars are strictly necessary, but may be omitted in loose transcription. They are probably best placed under the consonant, where they are less distracting. For glottalized clicks, two tie bars may be necessary: or, though ,  may be sufficient, even though the latter do not specify full glottal closure.

For back-released clicks, there's the possibility of alveolar-velar (or ?) vs labial-velar  (or ?), but this may not be necessary in practice. and only occur paralexically.


 * Derivation

The above are Greek or Latinized Greek letters that graphically resemble orthographies for clicks or have iconic connections.
 * (≈ Latin tau) for Greek t and graphically recalls c, linking it to ʇ, c, tsk. Insular has distinct capital (which true Greek τ does not) and has a better bowl than Greek  in many fonts (i.e. it better resembles c). Or perhaps use  (which resembles a ꞇ-ς ligature -- cf. ƾ) if ꞇ is used for a dental plosive.
 * hollow bowl ≈ hollow sound + iconic | for click; graphically resembles q. Backformation of the Doke letter ψ for a true retroflex click, if a retroflex tail were added to to make it consistent with other retroflex letters.
 * is Greek x, also resembles a double (stacked) dental ligature just as ǁ is double dental ǀ.
 * is Greek p for 'palate', ≈ rotated ǂ (horiz. bar for palate + 2 strokes rather than vert. bar). Doke's symbol ↆ would be appropriate at the (acoustically) flat analogue of [ψ]. ʗ, which in the IPA was ambiguous between alveolar and palatal, would also fit, as it matches palatal [c] in form.
 * ? (≈ Latin curled p) resembles @ (typewriter substitute for ), labial p, and old bilabial trill ρ.
 * as a retroflex click per its retroflex form. with a retroflex tail isn't particularly appropriate, as acoustically the retroflex is very different from the alveolar (e.g. it's affricated). One of the problems with the pre-Kiel letters is that 'retroflex' ⟨ʗ⟩ had the shape of a retroflex but was used for the alveolar, which made transcribing actual retroflex clicks unintuitive. It may be best to reassign it to an actual retroflex, per its label, or for a palatal click, given its graphic similarity to ⟨c⟩. Thus Doke's letters,  are exchanged.
 * front lateral as it resembles alveolar/palatal lateral
 * per old IPA value, no need for further distinctions

Star names

 * List of proper names of stars
 * List of proper names of exoplanets
 * List of Arabic star names - continue fixing
 * Chinese star names

The system occurs in the lunar station that was given the name πολις polis in a Coptic manuscript list of lunar stations, which Crum concluded were either in "debased" Greek or in a few cases Coptic equivalents of Greek names. Given that the Greeks are not known to have used lunar stations, the origin of the names is unknown. Allen's source reports the name as "Polis (= Sagittarius, particularly the Bow-stars)", translates it as "the Foal", and identifies it with the Greek word πῶλος pôlos "foal", which they identify as the Hippocentaur. But ... this station would be called κάστρον kastron "fort" in later Greek documents, corresponding to (translating?) Arabic البلدة albalda "town", (Weinstock or the writer of his letter added "= Arabic" after πολις) suggesting that Coptic-Greek πολις is to be identified with Greek πόλις "city"

Barthel and Guy: A calendar on tablet C

 * Phonetic complements and determinatives
 * Guy: I think that's enough so I am commenting out the remainder

This corresponds well to the old Rapa Nui lunar calendar, which appears to have had 28 regular nights plus two intercalary nights. The connection is strengthened by the pattern of the crescents:


 * To match the Rapa Nui lunar calendar, the first two crescents (on line Ca6) must be the night of the new moon and the following night. Now, in the old calendar, the six nights following these two nights all had the name kokore (kokore 1–6), as did the five nights following the full moon (kokore 1–5). The Mamari tablet has sequences of six and of five crescents at the proper locations to be the kokore: at the beginning (left side) of line Ca7 and at the break from Ca7 to Ca8 (right side).
 * The six nights in the old calendar between the kokore 6 and the full moon are broken up by the intercalary day hotu in two of the three records we have. On the tablet, the six crescents between the sequence identified above as the kokore and the full moon are also broken up into two groups of three.
 * The eight nights in the old calendar between kokore 5 and the new moon break naturally with the night for the third quarter, rongo, into three and five. The crescents on the tablet are also broken into groups of three and five.

There are in addition several phonetic values suggested by Guy for the glyphs (green) which appear to modify these crescents, which correspond to the old calendar: Guy then compared possible meanings or near homonyms of the names of the other nights with Englert's Old Rapa Nui dictionary, and attempted to find correspondences with the modifying glyphs. His results were,
 * All of the kokore crescents are unadorned; phonetic complements would not be of much use distinguishing them.
 * At least one crescent is modified in all other groups, where the nights have individual names.
 * Night 10, hua: Per Englert, hua means 'fruit' or 'testicles', which resemble the hairy double lump hanging from crescent 10. This was perhaps used for a phonetic value hu.
 * Night 11, atua: This means 'god, lord'. The glyph preceding crescent 11 resembles the feathered capes emblematic of Polynesian chiefs.
 * Night 12, maure: Ure means 'penis, line', which resembles the glyph attached to crescent 12.
 * Night 23, rongo, the last quarter. Maro is a feathered garland, perhaps used for a phonetic value ro, and resembles the glyph attached to crescent 23.
 * Night 24, rongo tane. The preceding glyph is generally assumed to be a frigatebird, which is tavake in Rapanui. Guy suggests that it is being used as a phonetic complement ta, to distinguish rongo tane from the preceding night rongo.
 * Night 1, ata. Guy was not able to come up with any reading for the modifying glyph.
 * Night 2, ari, or o-hiro in Englert. Hiro means 'to twine (cord)', and the glyph looks like two joined garlands.

Top 100 language populations (original numbers)
NE2007 data is directly from Parkvall. NE2010 data is not.

Turkmen entry spurious, perhaps typo. Data supports < 7M.

Swahili is 5.94M for 2012 data (4M TZ, 1M Zaire, 645k Kenya, 140k Rwanda, 40k Somalia)

Kelkumaj numeraloj
La grandaj numeraloj dekumaj estas 101 dek, 102 cent, 103 mil; 106 meg, 109 gig, 1012 ter (duiliono), 1015 pet, 1018 eks (triiliono), 1021 zet, 1024 jot (kvariliono).

La numeraloj dekduumaj estas nul, unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, naŭ, alf (A aŭ ↊), bet (B aŭ ↋), 121 doz (dekduuma 10), 122 groc (dekduuma 100), 123 groceg (dekduuma 1000; dekuma 1728).

La numeraloj deksesumaj estas nul, unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, naŭ, alf (A), bet (B), gam (C), delt (D), eps (E), faŭ (F), 161 heks (deksesuma 10), 162 zenz (deksesuma 100) (< zenzic), 163 zenzeg (deksesuma 1000; dekuma 4096).

La bazaj numeraloj dudekumaj estas 201 vint (dudekuma 10 = dekuma 20), 202 bak (dudekuma 100 = dekuma 400), 203 pik (dudekuma 1000 = dekuma 8000), kaj 206 alaŭ = 1,000,000 / 64,000,000. (Ankaŭ troviĝis 204 kalab = 10,000 / 160,000, 205 kinĉil = 100,000 / 3,200,000.) La majaoj nombris per kvinoj kaj per dudekoj (ekz-e, 17 estis cit "trikvin du").

La sumeroj, babilonianoj kaj iliaj najbaroj uzis dekuman sistemon (dek, dudek, tridek ktp) ĝis 60, por kiu la sumeroj havis bazan vorton, geŝ, kaj la babilonianoj ŝuŝ (nuntempe internaciigita sos). De tie, oni nombris per sosoj (do, 600 estis dek sos, 1200 dudek sos, ktp) ĝis 602 = 3600, por kiu ili denove havis propran vorton, ŝar (internaciigita sar). Do oni povas nombri sesdekume per nur la numeraloj fundamentaj kaj du elbabiloniaj, sos kaj sar. La babilonianoj ankaŭ uzis numeralon ner por dek sos (600), do du ner por dudek sos (1200).

planedetoj
$695,508$ + Emma-I $1,989,100,000$ -- d=141.6 ca. 140 $1.409$  121 (88×2)  77±18 + 66   < 60 + < 66

(diam. uncertain)