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Main page: Deer stone

Deer stones (also known as reindeer stones) can be found all over the world but are concentrated largely in Siberia and parts of Mongolia. There are many theories to the reasons behind their existence and the people who made them. Deer stones are upright standing stone monuments, with a square or rectangular cross-section. They have varying heights, though most are over 3 feet tall. The tops of the stones can be flat, round or smashed, suggesting that perhaps the original top had been deliberately destroyed. The stones are usually oriented with the decorated face to the east. Most of the stones can be dated to the Bronze Age, roughly 3,000 years ago. They are constructed of whatever stone material is most available in the particular region, be it granite or greenstone (archaeology). Though deer stones and khirisuur mounds are similar, they should not be confused.

Types of Stones
V.V.Volkov, in his 30 years of research, classified 3 distinct types of deer stones.
 * Classic Mongolian
 * These stones are fairly detailed and more elegant in their depiction methods. They usually feature a belted warrior with a stylized flying reindeer on his torso.  This type of stone is most prominent in southern Siberian and northern Mongolia.  This concentration suggests that these stones were the origin of the deer stone tradition, and further types both simplified and elaborated on these.
 * West Asian-European
 * These stones feature a central region of the stone, sectioned off by two "belts", horizontal lines. There are also "earring hoops", large circles, diagonal slashes in groups of two and three known as "faces", and "necklaces", collection of stone pits resembling their namesake.
 * Sayan-Altai
 * The Sayan-Altai stones feature some of the West Asian-European markings, including free-floating, straight-legged animals, daggers and other tools. The appearance of deer motifs is markedly diminished, and those that do appear often do not emphasis the relationship between reindeer and flying.  The Sayan-Altai stones can be sub-divided into two types:
 * The Gorno-Altai stones have simple warrior motifs, displaying tools in the belt region of the stone. Reindeer motifs appear but are few.
 * The Sayan-Tuva stones are similar to the Gorno-Altai but contain fewer images of animals. No deer motifs are present.  The artistic style is much simpler, often consisting of only belts, necklaces, earrings and faces.

Stones vary from region to region. The stones of Siberia display all of these types, with an emphasis on animal motifs from the forest and the steppe.

Imagery
There are many common images that appear in deer stones, as well as a multitude of ways they are presented.
 * Reindeer
 * Reindeer feature prominently in nearly all of the deer stones. Early stones have very simple images of reindeer, and as time progress, the designs increase in detail.  A gap of 500 years results in the appearance of the complicated flying reindeer depiction.  Reindeer are depicted as flying through the air, rather than merely running on land.  Piers Vitebsky writes, "The reindeer is depicted with its neck outstretched and its legs flung out fore and aft, as if not merely galloping but leaping through the air."   The antlers, sometimes appearing in pairs, have become extremely ornate, utilizing vast spiral designs that can encompass the entire deer.  These antlers sometimes hold a sun disc or other sun-related image.  Other artwork from the same period further emphasizes the connection between the reindeer and the sun, which is a very common association in Siberian shamanism.  Tattoos on buried warriors contain deer tattoos, featuring antlers embellished with small birds' heads.  This reindeer-sun-bird imagery perhaps symbolizes the shaman's spiritual transformation from the earth to the sky: the passage from earthly life to heavenly life.  As these deer images also appear in warrior tattoos, it is possible that reindeer were believed to offer protection from dangerous forces.  Another theory is that the deer spirit served as a guide to assist the warrior soul to heaven.
 * Other Animals
 * Particularly in the Sayan-Altai stones, a multitude of other animals are present in deer stone imagery. One can see depictions of tigers, pigs, cows, horse-like creatures, frogs and birds.   Unlike the reindeer however, these animals are depicted in a more natural style.  This lack of ornate detailing indicates the lack of supernatural importance of such animals, taking an obvious backseat against the reindeer.   The animals are often paired off with one another in confrontation, ex. a tiger confronting a horse in a much more earthly activity.
 * Weapons and Tools


 * Weapons and tools can be seen throughout all the stones, though weapons make a strong appearance in the Sayan-Altai stones.  Bows and daggers crop up frequently as well as typical Bronze-Age implements, such as fire-starters or chariot reigns.  The appearance of these tools helps date the stones to the Bronze Age.
 * Patterns
 * Chevron (insignia) patterns crop up occasionally, usually in the upper regions of the stone. These patterns can be likened to military shields, suggesting the stones' connection to armed conflict.  It has also been suggested that chevron patterns could be a shamanic emblem representing the skeleton.
 * Human Faces
 * Human faces are a much rarer occurrence and are usually carved into the top of the stone. These faces are carved with an open mouth, as though singing.  This also suggests a religious/shamanistic connection of the deer stone, as vocal expression is a common and important theme in shamanism.

Construction
The stones are constructed from usually greenstone or granite, though granite is the more common material of choice. The carvings and designs were most usually completed before the stone was erected, though some stones show signs of being carved in place. The designs were pecked or ground into the stone surface. Deep-grooved cuts and right-angle surfaces indicate the presence of metal tools. Stone tools were used to smooth the harsh cuts of some designs. Nearly all the stones were hand carved, but some unusual stones show signs that they could have been cut with a primitive type of mechanical drill.

Purpose
There are several proposed theories for the purpose of the deer stones. The stones do not occur alone, usually with several other stone monuments, sometimes carved sometimes not. The soil around these gatherings often contains traces of animal remains, for example, horses. Such remains were placed underneath these auxiliary stones. Human remains on the other hand were not found at any of the sites, which discredits the theory that the stones could function as gravestones. The markings on the stones and the presence of sacrificial remains could suggest a religious purpose, perhaps a prime location for the occurrence of shamanistic rituals. According to William Fitzhugh, a prominent deer stone researcher, the monuments could represent a spiritualized human body, particularly that of a prominent figure such as a warrior or leader. The stones are all very different in construction and imagery. This reinforces Fitzhugh's theory, as each stone's unique construction could tell a unique story for the individual it represented.