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Methusellah Kyeremateng EEOB 3310

Annotated Bibliography
Bridget Penman, a professor at the department of zoology, university of oxford and her colleagues Kanika Kanchan and Sunetra Gupta explain how the different hemoglobinopathies observed in different world regions each represent an alternative evolutionary answer to the problem of malaria. According to the authors, the success or failure of particular beta globin mutations may be affected by the presence or absence of alpha globin mutations, and vice versa. The article also clearly illustrates how selection pressures can and does significantly alter whether or not sickle cell can invade a cell.
 * Penman, Bridget S, Saman Habib, Kanika Kanchan, and Sunetra Gupta. "Negative Epistasis between Α⁺ Thalassaemia and Sickle Cell Trait Can Explain Interpopulation Variation in South Asia." Evolution. 65.12 (2011): 3625-3632. Print.

Frank Livingstone, a professor at the University of Michigan, explains that although several people tried to explain the discovery of high prevalence of the sickle trait in the tropical belts of Africa and Asia as a result of emigration and admixture, but he thought there had to be some other explanation. He concluded that through domestication man has created large populations of animals in the homes and the animals have in turn influenced the epidemiology of several human illnesses of which malaria is key.
 * LIVINGSTONE, FRANK B. "Anthropological Implications of Sickle Cell Gene Distribution in West Africa¹." American Anthropologist. 60.3 (1958): 533-562. Print.

Although, the author agrees with the original ‘malaria hypothesis’ and why it has undoubtedly stood the test of time, he also explained that there is numerous cellular mechanisms for protection of thalassemia heterozygotes against malaria. The article reiterated the fact that heterozygote protection has not only given to the current high frequency of the Hb disorders and G6PD deficiency, but has also altered the genetic make-up of humans in so many significant ways. His experiment suggests the direct correlation between disorders like the haemoglobinopathies and G6PD deficiency and malaria. Thus the aforementioned disorders occur at very high frequency in areas with a high prevalence rate of malaria, or those that have been exposed to malaria in the past. The authors, in the article showed that during Plasmodium falciparum infections, the ability of the cell to recognize very specific antigens of malaria is very high. They also proved that the level of in vivo activation of the lymphocytes is significantly lower in patients with the sickle cell trait (carriers) than in patients without the sickle cell trait. The authors also explained in quite some detail that the sickling of the hemoglobin in carriers of the trait actually acts as the modulator of the immunity to the plasmodium parasite.
 * Weatherall, D J. "Genetic Variation and Susceptibility to Infection: the Red Cell and Malaria." British Journal of Haematology. 141.3 (2008): 276-286. Print.
 * ABU-ZEID, Y A, T G. THEANDER, N H. ABDULHADI, L HVIID, B O. SAEED, S JEPSEN, J B. JENSEN, and R A. BAYOUMI. "Modulation of the Cellular Immune Response During plasmodium Falciparum Infections in Sickle Cell Trait Individuals." Clinical & Experimental Immunology. 88.1 (1992): 112-118. Print.

The authors explained with relevant examples through their article that, agricultural adaptation can be an ultimate determinant for malarial infection and immunity. From their point of view, that creates a change in the intracellular environment, a change which is in fact very harmful to non-carriers of the sickle cell trait. Carriers of the sickle cell trait however have the capacity to alter their cellular environment by the sole virtue of the ‘abnormal’ hemoglobin to prevent parasitism from developing.
 * Wiesenfeld, SL. "Sickle-cell Trait in Human Biological and Cultural Evolution. Development of Agriculture Causing Increased Malaria Is Bound to Gene-Pool Changes Causing Malaria Reduction." Science (New York, N.Y.). 157.3793 (1967): 1134-40. Print

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_resistance_to_malaria

 * Through the act of domestication man did create large populations of animals in the home and the animals have in turn influenced the epidemiology of several human illnesses of which malaria is key. {{cite journal {{cite journal|last1=LIVINGSTONE|first1=FRANK B|title=Anthropological Implications of Sickle Cell Gene Distribution in West Africa|journal=American Anthropologist|date=1958|volume=3|issue=60|pages=533-562|accessdate=3 October 2014}},
 * Although the article isn't specifically about adaptive immunity, I think there should be some sort of explanation given for how and/why the writer seems to think that the innate immunity acquired at birth (genetic resistance) to malaria could somehow lead to adaptive immunity.Moreover, I think there should be a section on how and/or why the 'plasmodium' parasite and for that matter malaria started to exert a significant selective pressure on the populations with high prevalence of malaria.

EDIT 2 (300 WORDS OR LESS)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_resistance_to_malaria

The significance of malaria needs to be given a little bit more focus[edit] The world even today is still suffering from the effects of the malaria pandemic, due to the very significant problem of drug resistance of Plasmodium malaria parasites (Evans & Willems, 2002). According to Evans and Willems, the ineffectiveness of insecticides against mosquitoes due to the adaptation of mosquitoes to life above the height of DDT spraying has acted to suppress the measures that were put in place to curtail the spread of the parasites some fifty years ago even though it produced very hopeful results in the beginning. Also the initially impressive results garnered by the use of the antimalarial drug chloroquine in the 1950's, were negated very soon by the appearance and then quick spread of mutated, chloroquine resistant plasmodium strains (Evans and Willems, 2002)

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