User:Lanafan25/Renewable energy/Bibliography

Pareek, A., Dom, R., Gupta, J., Chandran, J., Adepu, V., & Borse, P. H. (2020). Insights into renewable hydrogen energy: Recent advances and prospects. Materials Science for Energy Technologies, 3, 319–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mset.2019.12.002

The current renewable sources of energy like Hydropower, Wind, Solar, and Geothermal energy have limitations in maximizing energy for human life due to geographical reasons or technological reasons. Hydrogen is the latest energy source that is being studied to identify invocations of renewable energy as a potential energy carrier. Hydrogen is pretty light and everywhere on earth and is emission free when used as fuel and can be easily produced by domestic sources. Significant interest in hydrogen as an alternative fuel is due to it being 2-3 times higher efficiency than gasoline and clean burning qualities.

The drawback to using hydrogen as fuel is that it needs to be in pure form to create energy. 96 percent of hydrogen is produced by steam reforming methods; another 4% of hydrogen is produced from electrolysis methods. In Steam reforming technology extracts hydrogen from fossil fuels stocks. 10-11 million tonnes of hydrogen requirements of the U.S is achieved from steam reforming every year. As for electrolysis technology, water is splitted into oxygen and hydrogen atoms using electric currents. Other methods include thermochemical cycles, wind, biomass gasification, and solar but these technologies are in their primary stage of research. Hydrogen needs tremendous efforts with respect to its commercial viability to be used as a primary energy source.

Currently natural gas is the most  favored option for hydrogen generation and utilization in industries. In order to move to a more renewable energy option, hydrogen generation using renewable sources like water and solar light is needed. This means invocation of photocatalytic and photoelectron chemical hydrogen generation is needed, which requires a lot of effort and cost.

Yue, M., Lambert, H., Pahon, E., Roche, R., Jemei, S., & Hissel, D. (2021). Hydrogen energy systems: A critical review of technologies, applications, trends and challenges. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 146, 111180-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111180

The benefits of generating electricity from hydrogen using a fuel cell causes no pollution because the only by product is pure water and high energy density. Also hydrogen can reduce countries’ dependence on external energy suppliers due to the fact that hydrogen can be locally produced. The extraction of hydrogen can be produced by a range of substances like water, oil, gas, biofuels, and sewage sludge. Hydrogen can be produced before it is used due to the intermittent nature of some renewable energy resources so that it is suitable for distributed production and centralized production connected to the remote renewable resources. The hydrogen produced from an electrolyser is perfect for use with fuel cells. Stationary fuel cell technologies also facilitate the development of distributed power backup, stand-alone power plants and co-generation. Combined with a fuel cell, the electricity can be produced when and where it is needed so that the hydrogen does not need to be stored.

The few cons of Hydrogen fueled energy are capital costs, hydrogen production cost, water and rare material consumption, systems efficiency and durability. Installations of small builds 0.3-5 kW cost around 10,000 EUR/kW. Larger builds go up to 2000 to 3000 EUR/kW. Technological advances in increasing the active area of the stack are required, which can reduce the number of cells for producing hydrogen. When it comes to the hydrogen production cost the consumption of electricity should be considered If hydrogen is produced through water electrolysis with an assumed efficiency of 60%, all today’s dedicated hydrogen demand requires 3600 TWh of electricity consumption, which exceeds the total annual electricity generation in Europe. The consumption of water also increases as it is a necessary element for hydrogen production.

Oliveira, A. M., Beswick, R. R., & Yan, Y. (2021). A green hydrogen economy for a renewable energy society. Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering, 33, 100701-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coche.2021.100701

Hydrogen’s property at being high mass energy density, light weight, and facile electrochemical conversion allow it to carry energy across geographical regions through pipelines or in the firm of liquid fuels like ammonia, and across sectors as it can be used as a chemical feedback, burned for heat, used as a reagent for synthetic fuel production, or converted back to electricity through fuel cells. Hydrogen’s capability to store energy long term in tanks or underground caverns makes it one of the only green technologies that can be used across seasons.

The switch to green hydrogen can reduce projected carbon dioxide emission by 1.6 Gt by 2050 annually. Green hydrogen can be produced directly from the grid during peak periods and stored in tanks or underground caverns. Where losses to leakage are minimal, even over seasonal durations. Limitations involved that battery and fuel cell technologies cannot currently satisfy the power needs of large aircraft since the weight of batteries will increase and hydrogen tanks would take too much space.

Although there will still be a need for petroleum-based products industries, this will be responsible for some of the remaining 11 Gt of annual CO2 emissions. As we try making each sector be reliant on hydrogen to reduce emissions. If implemented correctly hydrogen has the efficiency of 65% of the lower heating value at normal capacity.

Wang, M., Wang, G., Sun, Z., Zhang, Y., & Xu, D. (n.d.). Review of renewable energy-based hydrogen production processes for sustainable energy innovation. Global Energy Interconnection, 2(5), 436–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloei.2019.11.019

The global hydrogen demand was 255.3 billion cubic meters in 2013, and will grow to 324.8 billion cubic meters by 2020. Different ways hydrogen is produced is by wind energy, solar energy, nuclear energy, biomass decomposition via chemical, microbial, and electrolytic actions. Two main hydrogen materials are derived from water and biomass with many different methods. There are several technologies for hydrogen production using water including water electrolysis, water thermolysis, photocatalytic water splitting, and thermochemical water splitting; these methods are performed using renewable energy sources.

Wind-drive hydrogen production using water is created by the power of wind farms to create electricity to direct current through rectification using power electronic control systems, which can then be used to produce hydrogen in electrolytic cells. The hydrogen produced from the electrolytic cells can then be separated and purified, after which it can be compressed and stored in storage modules. In solar-energy based hydrogen production using water thermolysis is based on solar concentrators to directly collect solar energy to heat water to 2500 K, causing decomposes of H2 and O2. One problem with methods is achieving high enough temperature using solar concentrators to separate the water molecules. Another solar-energy used is the method of photoelectrolysis decomposition. In photoelectrolysis the application of heterogeneous photocatalysts at one electrode of a PV electrolytic cell is exposed to solar radiation. The photoanode of the cell absorbs sunlight because of which electrons are generated by the semiconductor at the anode. These electrons are then transmitted to the cathode via external current leading to H2 generation. Hydrogen is produced from pyrolysis of biomass.

Kyriakopoulos GL, Aravossis KG. 2023. Literature Review of Hydrogen Energy Systems and Renewable Energy Sources. Energies (Basel). 16(22):7493-. doi:10.3390/en16227493.

Depending on the production process of hydrogen it can be classified as gray if hydrogen is made from fossil fuels such as coal and oil and makes full scale greenhouse gas emission. Usually the method for gray hydrogen production is from thermal, cracking, pyrolysis and gasification. Blue hydrogen is produced from natural gas, biogas, syngas and makes carbon emission but it is captured and reused. The technology for producing blue hydrogen is steam reforming, auto-thermal reforming, and combustion. Lastly green hydrogen is from renewable energy like solar and has zero emission. The technology for green hydrogen is electrolysis, thermolysis, and biophotolysis.

The pricing of energy selling is related to the energy-storage system through which energy can be sold when demand increases. A technical limitation of hydrogen is the finite capacity of the storage tank. Another limitation is the inefficiency in the processes of transformation and recovery, since for these processes energy output is less than energy input. Modeling optimization is needed to determine the proper hydrogen storage capacity for the system’s optimization. A tank-size capacity is needed to transform the energy curve into a constant curve through time and for energy storage produced above the power limit to dump it into the network again when the production is below the power limit.

For the most efficient energy production of hydrogen will be a hybrid of renewable energy systems. This method has helped solve the issues related to individual energy sources. A typical hybrid system is green-energy systems using various renewable energy types. This allows for energy availability. The energy sources need to be local as it can lower the possibility of damage to the transmission wire. The proximity can support repair and maintenance when needed.

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