User:LarryTheShark/sandbox

The inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus), also commonly known as the western taipan, the small-scaled snake, or the fierce snake, is a highly venomous snake of the taipan (Oxyuranus) genus, and is endemic to semi-arid regions of central east Australia. Aboriginal Australians living in those regions named the snake Dandarabilla. It was first described by Frederick McCoy in 1879 and then by William John Macleay in 1882, but for the next 90 years, it was a mystery species to Western Science. No more specimens were found, and virtually nothing was added to knowledge of this species until its rediscovery in 1972.

Its venom, drop for drop, is by far the most toxic of any snake in the world – much more so than even sea snakes. Unlike most snakes, the inland taipan is a specialist mammal hunter so its venom is specially adapted to kill warm-blooded species. It is estimated that one bite possesses enough lethality to kill at least 100 full grown men,  and, depending on the nature of the bite, can kill someone in as little as 30 to 45 minutes if left untreated. It is an extremely fast and agile snake which can strike instantly with extreme accuracy, often snapping its jaws fiercely several times to inflict multiple punctures in the same attack.

Although highly venomous and a capable striker, contrary to the rather aggressive natured coastal taipan, the inland taipan is usually quite a shy and reclusive snake, with a placid disposition, and prefers to escape from trouble. However, it will defend itself and strike if provoked, mishandled, or prevented from escaping. Also because it lives in such remote locations, the inland taipan seldom comes in contact with people; therefore it is not considered the most deadly snake in the world overall, especially in terms of disposition and human deaths per year. The word "fierce" from its alternative name describes its venom, not its temperament.

Etymology
Oxyuranus microlepidotus has been the fierce snake's binomial name since the early 1980's.  The generic name, Oxyuranus, means oxus (Greek) "sharp pointed", oura (Greek) "tail"; -anus (Latin) "belonging to", and refers to the inland taipan's long pointed tail. The specific name, microlepidotus, means "small-scaled" (Latin). Hence the common name, small-scaled snake. Since it has been determined (Covacevich et al., 1981) that the fierce snake (formerly: Parademansia microlepidota) is actually part of the genus Oxyuranus (taipan), another species, Oxyuranus scutellatus, which was previously commonly named taipan (coined from the aboriginal snake's name Dhayban) became coastal taipan (or eastern taipan), and the now newly classified Oxyuranus microlepidotus, became commonly known as inland taipan (or western taipan). The word "fierce" from its alternative name, fierce snake, describes its powerful venom.

Evolution
Two Australian taipans (the coastal taipan, Oxyuranus scutellatus, and the inland taipan, Oxyuranus microlepidotus) shared a common ancestor. Alignments of the mitochondrial ND4 genes from the inland taipan and the coastal taipan found variations of approximately 13%. This indicates an evolutionary divergence from a common ancestor around 9-10 million years ago. Based on the current understanding of the phylogenetic relationships of Australo-papuan venomous snakes, it has been suggested that the morphological diversity and innovation seen in taipan (Oxyuranus) species might be traceable to a Pseudonaja-like ancestor (Scanlon, et al., 2003). The inland taipan has retained many physiological and behavioural traits resembling present-day Pseudonaja species, such as small head size, short fangs, lower venom yields, high toxicity, and distinctive threat posture. However, Pseudonaja species are opportunistic feeders and pursue a range of small prey animals, whereas the inland taipan has diverged to hunt moderately sized mammals such as the plague rat (Rattus villosissimus) in the confined spaces of narrow earth cracks and animal burrows. In contrast other taipan species have developed several recently derived, innovative features: larger head, larger eyes and jaw gape, large fangs, large venom yields, high toxicity, larger body size, and a unique "snap and release" biting strategy. These innovations have been attributed to diet and foraging behaviour (Shine, 1983)

Prehistory
Both the Inland and Costal taipans would have been known to Aboriginal Australians 40,000-60,000 years ago and both are well known to them today. To the Aboriginal people from the place now called Goyder Lagoon, north-east South Australia, Dandarabilla was the snake now known as the Inland taipan. To the Wik-munkan People from western Cape York Peninsula, Far North Queensland, Dhayban was the snake now known as the Coastal taipan. (from them, Anthropologist Donald Thomson, coined the snake's English common name, Taipan).

Scientific discovery
The first inland taipan to come to the attention of Western Science was in 1879. Two specimens of the fierce snake were first discovered in the junction of the Murray and Darling Rivers in northwestern Victoria and described by Frederick McCoy, who called the species Diemenia microlepidota, or small-scaled brown snake. In 1882 a third specimen was found near Bourke, New South Wales, and William John Macleay described the same snake under the name Diemenia ferox (thinking is was a different species ). In 1896 George Albert Boulenger classified both as belonging to the same genus, Pseudechis (Black Snakes), referring them as Pseudechis microlepidotus and Pseudechis ferox.

For the next 90 years virtually nothing would be added to knowledge of this species. It was, for practical purposes, "lost". No more specimens were discovered. No information on its occurrence, behaviour, or venom properties was published.

In 1956, relying only on published descriptions and notes, James Roy Kinghorn regarded ferox as a synonym for microlepidotus and proposed the genus Parademansia. In 1963 Eric Worrell considered Parademansia microlepidotus and Oxyuranus scutellatus (coastal taipan, named simply "taipan" in those days) to be the same species. .

Rediscovery
When a tour operator was bitten by a large, dark brown, black-headed snake in far southwestern Queensland in 1967, the effects of the snake's venom were devastating. The Royal Flying Doctor and a specialist in Adelaide saved his life. The snake responsible was identified by the victim as a Western Brown snake (Pseudonaja nuchalis). Later, the specimen was examined further and identified as a taipan (Coastal taipan today), Oxyuranus scutellatus. This specimen was re-examined subsequent to the rediscovery, in 1972, of the snake by then known as Parademansia microlepidota. That comparison showed they were the same species.

In August 1972, Herpetologist Jeanette Covacevich, formerly of the Queensland Museum received in the mail a tin can from a Mr. Herb Rabig, a grazier from one of the Channel Country stations west of Windorah. The tin contained the preserved head and tail of a snake she had not seen before. She attempted to identify it routinely and could not make a 'fit' with anything in the readily available literature. A check of the taxonomic journal literature and an early review of the fauna of Victoria confirmed that, on her desk, sat a specimen of an elapid snake described in 1879 as Diemenia microlepidota from only two specimens. Only one other had been found (1882) and it had been lost very soon after its discovery. Probably, because no more specimens had been found and there was no way of knowing where to search, Diemenia microlepidota had virtually disappeared from both the taxonomic literature and guides to Australia's snakes. Parademansia microlepidota continued to be a "missing", mystery species.

Following Herb Rabig's donation of the head and tail of a freshly collected Parademansia microlepidota, a field trip was planned (funded by the Queensland Museum) with Jeanette Covacevich and Charles Tanner, an eminent herpetologist, to find this snake. The quest was to find live specimens for venom studies and to try and uncover some information about the behaviour of Parademansia microlepidota. In September 1972, they travelled to the Channel Country of the far southwest Queensland. In the following 10 days, with the help and advice of Herb Rabig, they found 13 healthy, live specimens, all of which were brought back to the Queensland Museum for future study. Then began 12 years of research, both at the Museum and with colleagues, specialists in taxonomy, toxinology and ecology, from Australia and abroad.

In 1976 Jeanette Covacevich and John Wombey argued that Parademansia microlepidotus belongs to a distinct genus, and this was also the opinion of Harold Cogger.

In 1981, examination of external features, facial muscles, skull measurements, venom, hemipenis anatomy, numbers and shapes of chromosomes, and behaviour of the two species then known as Oxyuranus scutellatus and Parademansia microlepidota, showed they should be placed together in one genus. They were more closely related to each other than to any other species. Oxyuranus (1923), was the appropriate generic name for both species because it pre-dated Parademansia (1955). The work of Covacevich, McDowell, Tanner & Mengden (1981) led to the change.

Geographic range
The inland taipan inhabits the black soil plains in the semi-arid regions where Queensland and South Australia borders converge.

In Queensland the snake has been observed in Channel Country region (e.g., Diamantina National Park, Durrie Station, Morney Plains Station and Astrebla Downs National Park ) and in South Australia it has been observed in the Maree-Innamincka NRM District. (e.g., Goyder Lagoon Tirari Desert, Sturt Stony Desert, Coongie Lakes, Innamincka Regional Reserve and Oodnadatta ). An isolated population also occurs near Coober Pedy, South Australia.

There are two old records for localities further south-east, i.e., the junction of the Murray and Darling Rivers in northwestern Victoria (1879) and Bourke, New South Wales (1882); however the species has not been collected in either state since then.

Habitat
Inland taipans are associated with the deep cracking-clays and cracking-loams of the floodplains to escape predators and the searing heat. However they also venture onto nearby gibber plains, dunes and rocky outcrops if cover is available. The vegetation in these areas is usually sparse, consisting of chenopod shrubs, lignum and the occasional eucalypt near the water channels.

The snakes shelter in soil cracks and crevices, and in holes and mammal burrows.

Conservation Status
Like every Australian snake, the inland taipan is protected by law.

Conservation status has not yet been assessed for the IUCN Red List as of 8 November 2013.

The inland taipan's Conservation Status has been designated by Australian official sources:
 * South Australia: (Outback regional status) Least Concern.
 * Queensland: Near Threatened (used to be officially Rare ).  The Australian Museum and the Taronga Conservation Society  quote it as Rare.
 * New South Wales: Extinct. The Australian Museum quotes it as Presumed Extinct.
 * Victoria: Regionally Extinct. The Australian Museum quotes it as Presumed Extinct

In captivity
According to the International Species Information System (retrieved 2004), inland taipans are held in three zoo collections: Adelaide Zoo, Sydney Taronga Zoo in Australia and Moscow Zoo in Russia. In the Moscow Zoo they are kept in the "House of Reptiles" which is not usually open for the general public.

The inland taipan is also on public display in Australia at the Australia Zoo, Australian Reptile Park, Billabong Sanctuary and the Cairns Tropical Zoo.

Outside of Australia: Kentucky Reptile Zoo (USA), Animal World & Snake Farm Zoo (Texas, USA),

Private ownership law
In Australia, owning an inland taipan requires a Class 2, Category 3 [R5] License (the highest). A person who wishes to keep reptiles, he or she must get a license from the appropriate state authority – such as the Office of Environment and Heritage in New South Wales. The reptile licensing and record-keeping system allows the authorities to monitor which reptile species are being kept, bred and traded amongst enthusiasts. The Class 2 license is only available to people who are over the age of 18 years who have had at least two years experience in caring for Class 1 reptiles. Additional criteria need to be met before venomous species may be kept. The venomous snakes in the Class 2 license are grouped into three sub-categories and the most dangerous species can be kept only by the more experienced keepers.

Appearance
The inland taipan is dark tan, ranging from a rich, dark hue to a brownish light-green, depending on season. It has 23 rows of dorsal scales at midbody, between 55 and 70 divided subcaudal scales, and one anal scale. Its back, sides and tail may be different shades of brown and grey, with many scales having a wide blackish edge. These dark-marked scales occur in diagonal rows so that the marks align to form broken chevrons of variable length that are inclined backward and downward. The lowermost lateral scales often have an anterior yellow edge. The dorsal scales are smooth and without keels. The round-snouted head and neck are usually noticeably darker than the body (glossy black in winter, dark brown in summer), the darker colour allowing the snake to heat itself while only exposing a smaller portion of the body at the burrow entrance. The eye is of average size with a blackish brown iris and without a noticeable coloured rim around the pupil. The head of the inland taipan is not distinct from the neck, as it is on Coastal Taipans, the body is streamlined.

The inland taipan averages approximately 1.8 m in total length, although larger specimens can reach total lengths of 2.5 m. Its fangs length are between 3.5 to 6.2 mm long (shorter than the fangs of the Coastal taipan).

Seasonal adaptation
Dramatic seasonal colour changes take place, with a darker winter and lighter summer coloration. These changes are an adaptation to the harsh outback climate, the darker markings absorbing heat more efficiently in winter and the reverse in summer. The head especially may take on an almost glossy black appearance at times in wild specimens, and lighter in captive specimens.

Behavior
The species is primarily, if not exclusively, diurnal in its activity on the surface although it may become nocturnal in hot weather conditions. They are most active in the early half of the morning, briefly basking and foraging in or near deep soil cracks and animal burrows, before retiring to shelter for the rest of the day. In cooler weather the snakes may also be found active in the afternoon.

Diet
Unlike most snakes, the inland taipan is a specialist mammal hunter; so its venom is specially adapted to kill warm-blooded species. In the wild, the inland taipan appears to feed entirely on small to medium-sized mammals, particularly the long-haired rat (Rattus villosissimus) which at times reaches plague proportions in this region, as well as the plains rat (Pseudomys australis), the introduced house mouse (Mus musculus), and various small Dasyurids. Taipans detect their prey by sensing movement and odour. They seem to have better eyesight than many other snakes. They flick their forked tongue rapidly in and out of the mouth, "tasting" the presence on the air of potential prey animals. This chemical information is passed to the Jacobson’s organ in the roof of the mouth, and then to the brain. Prey is usually cornered in a burrow or soil crack. The taipan, unable to retreat from its prey in this confined space, has a greater need to finish it off quickly. Unlike other venomous snakes that strike with a single, accurate bite then retreat while waiting for the prey to die, the fierce snake subdues the prey with a series of rapid, accurate strikes. It is known to deliver up to eight venomous bites in a single attack. Its more risky attack strategy entails holding its prey with its body and biting it repeatedly. This injects the extremely toxic venom deep into the prey. The venom acts so rapidly that its prey does not have time to fight back.

Populations of this snake are highly dependent on the availability of its favourite prey, the long-haired rat. This rat species goes through “boom-and-bust” cycles, breeding up to plague proportions during the good seasons and virtually disappearing during times of drought. When rats are in high numbers, the snakes grow very sleek and fat. However, once the rats disappear, the snakes must depend on less prevalent prey and/or draw upon their fat reserves until the rats return.

In captivity fierce snakes may also accept day-old chicks in addition to rats and mice.

Mating and reproduction
Because they live in such a remote, inhospitable part of the Australia, and are shy and retreating by nature, most information on breeding behaviour of inland taipans comes from observation of captive snakes.

Mating occurs in spring, anytime from August through December. Like coastal taipans, male inland taipans may engage in a spectacular competitive display called ritualistic combat. In this test of strength, they wrap around each other’s bodies like a coiled rope, wrestling with each other till the stronger snake forces his rival’s head to the ground. The struggle may last for hours, until the stronger male finally wins the right to mate with the female. If the female is receptive, he rubs his chin up and down her body, then twists the lower part of his body under hers. Males have two sex organs, called hemipenes, but only one at a time is used for mating. Mating may last for several hours, and a female may mate with more than one male during the breeding season. Females with oviducal eggs can be found in mid-spring (second half of November). About 2 months after mating, the female lays up to 20 eggs, with an average clutch size of 16 eggs. Older females (which have a larger body size) generally lay more eggs than younger ones. Taipan eggs are elongated in shape, with a leathery, permeable shell. Females will not usually mate every year because of the high energy costs and risks associated with reproduction. Reproduction rate is also influenced by the availability of food. If food is scarce, the snake will reproduce less.

In captivity, females can produce two clutches within what would effectively be one breeding season.

After depositing her eggs, the female abandons the nest site. Hatching occurs about 2 months later. The eggs measure 6 x 3.5 cm when laid and take 9–11 weeks to hatch at 27–30°C. The eggs are usually laid in abandoned animal burrows and deep crevices. Young snakes grow very fast under favourable conditions. Males and females grow to about the same size. Male Taipans reach sexual maturity at about 16 months, and females at about 28 month of age.

Captive snakes generally live for 10 to 15 years. An inland taipan at Australia Zoo lived to be over 20 years old.

Natural threats
The king brown snake (Pseudechis australis) is immune to most Australian snake venom, and is known to also eat young inland taipans. The perentie (Varanus giganteus), is a large monitor lizard which also shares the same habitat. As it grows large enough, it will readily tackle large venomous snakes for prey.

Interaction with humans
Many reptile keepers regard it as a placid snake to handle.

Inland taipans are rarely encountered in the wild by the average person because of their remoteness and brief above-ground appearance during the day. Although highly venomous, compared with the related coastal taipan (and despite the alternative name ‘Fierce Snake’), this species is actually quite shy and reclusive, with a placid disposition,   and prefers to escape from trouble. So long as a person is not creating much vibration and noise the inland taipan may not feel alarmed or bothered by a human presence.

However, caution should be exercised and a safe distance maintained as it can inflict a potentially fatal bite. Like any animal, the inland taipan will defend itself when provoked, mishandled or prevented to escape. Firstly it makes a threat display by raising its forebody in a tight low S-shaped curve with its head facing the offender. Should the offender choose to ignore the warning the inland taipan will strike. It is an extremely fast and agile snake which can strike instantly with extreme accuracy, making a single bite or several quick bites, often snapping its jaws fiercely several times to inflict multiple punctures in the same attack, and it envenoms in almost every case.

Venom
The inland taipan's venom, drop for drop, is by far the most toxic of any snake in the world – much more so than even sea snakes. Unlike most snakes, the inland taipan is a specialist mammal hunter so its venom is specially adapted to kill warm-blooded species. It is estimated that one bite possesses enough lethality to kill at least 100 full grown men,   and, depending on the nature of the bite (place of bite, amount of venom, victim's health and sensitivity etc.), can kill someone in as little as 30 to 45 minutes if left untreated.

The average quantity of venom delivered by this species is 44 mg and the maximum dose recorded is 110 mg, compared to the Indian cobra (Naja naja)169 mg/max 610 mg, and the North American eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) 410 mg/max 848 mg etc.

The median lethal dose (LD50), subcutaneous (the most applicable to actual bites) for mice is 0.025 mg/kg (0.01 mg/kg subcutaneous, in bovine serum albumin). Compared to the beaked sea snake (Enhydrina schistosa) 0.164 mg/kg, Indian cobra 0.565 mg/kg, North American eastern diamondback rattlesnake 11.4 mg/kg, etc., the inland taipan has a smaller venom yield than its cousin the coastal taipan yet its venom is almost four times as toxic.

Intravenous, intraperitoneal and intramuscular LD50 for the inland taipan venom have not been tested.

Belcher's sea snake (Hydrophis belcheri) is sometimes erroneously popularized as the most venomous snake in the world. Its actual LD50 (recorded only intramuscularly) is 0.24 mg/kg and 0.155 mg/kg, less lethal than other sea snakes such as the olive sea snake (Aipysurus laevis) 0.09 mg/kg and the most toxic intramuscularly, recorded of the sea snakes - the black-banded robust sea snake (Hydrophis melanosoma) 0.082 mg/kg. The black-banded robust sea snake has also been tested subcutaneously registering at 0.111 mg/kg. more than four times less toxic than the inland taipan's venom. In the LD50 subcutaneous test it is actually Dubois' sea snake (Aipysurus duboisii) which has the most toxic venom of the any of the sea snakes tested, registering at 0.044 mg/kg. Still nearly half less lethal as the inland taipan's venom.

The biological properties and toxicity of a baby inland taipan's venom are not significantly different or weaker than that of an adult inland taipan's.

The inland taipan's venom consists of:
 * Neurotoxins: Presynaptic neurotoxins; Paradoxin, and Postsynaptic neurotoxins; Oxylepitoxin-1, alpha-oxytoxin 1, alpha-scutoxin 1 – affecting the nervous system.
 * Hemotoxins (procoagulants) – affecting the blood.
 * Myotoxins – affecting the muscles.
 * possibly Nephrotoxins – affecting the kidneys.
 * possibly Haemorrhagins – affecting the blood vessels (Endothelium).

To date (2005), the majority of components in the venom of the taipan have not been characterized and little molecular research has been undertaken on taipan (Oxyuranus) species at large. The amino acid sequences of only seven proteins from inland taipan have been submitted to SWISS-PROT databases. This number represents a small proportion of possibly hundreds of proteins within its venom not yet described. Due to the number of peptides as yet undiscovered, there is much exploratory work that needs to be conducted.

Clinical effects
The mortality rate is high in untreated cases


 * Dangerousness of bite: Severe Envenoming likely, high lethality potential.
 * Rate of Envenoming: >80%.
 * Untreated Lethality Rate: >80%.

Clinically, envenomation may represent a complex scenario of multiple organ system poisoning with neurotoxic symptoms typically dominating. Acute renal failure, rhabdomyolysis, and disseminated coagulopathy may also complicate the setting.

The first local and general symptoms of a bite are local pain and variable non-specific effects which may include headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, dizziness, collapse or convulsions leading to major organ effects: neurotoxicity, coagulopathy, rhabdomyolysis or renal failure/damage and finally death

The snake's venom is a neurotoxin that contains a "spreading factor" (hyaluronidase enzyme) that increases the rate of absorption and thus acts quickly. Inland taipan snake venom contains potent presynaptic neurotoxins (toxins in venom that cause paralysis or muscle weakness). Also present are postsynaptic neurotoxins, which are less potent but more rapid acting than the presynaptic neurotoxins. Presynaptic neurotoxins disrupt neurotransmitter release from the axon terminal. This takes days to resolve and does not respond to antivenom. Postsynaptic neurotoxins competitively block acetylcholine receptors but the effect can be reversed by antivenom. Neurotoxic envenoming causes a progressive descending flaccid paralysis: ptosis is usually the first sign, then facial (dysarthria) and bulbar involvement progressing to dyspnea and respiratory paralysis leading to suffocation and peripheral weakness. Because it can act so fast, it can kill a person within about 45 minutes. There have been reports of people experiencing effects of venom within half an hour as well. The development of general and/or respiratory paralysis is of paramount concern in that these are often difficult to reverse once established, even with large amounts of antivenom. Prolonged intubation and ventilatory support (perhaps up to 1 week or longer) may be required. Early diagnosis of neurotoxic symptoms with prompt and adequate dosages of antivenom is critical to avoid these complications.

Comparative electrophoretic studies have been conducted with the venoms from the coastal taipan and the inland taipan, and indicated significant differences exist between the components of these venoms (Broad et al., 1979a). Further studies have shown that inland taipan venom has a higher hyaluronidase activity compared to coastal taipan venom. In vitro, inland taipan possesses post-synaptic neuromuscular activity blocking smooth muscle contraction and vasorelaxation activities, and in vivo, produces transient respiratory and cardiovascular collapse (Bell et al., 1998 and 1999). Although CSL antivenom neutralised the effects of their respective presynaptic neurotoxic (paradoxin and taipoxin) and the post-synaptic activity of coastal taipan venom, the post-synaptic activity of inland taipan venom was not neutralised.

The venom also contains a potent hemotoxin (procoagulants) a prothrombin activator that leads to consumption of major coagulation factors including fibrinogen, toxins in venom that interfere with blood clotting. This causes defibrination, with non-clottable blood, putting victims at risk of major bleeding from the bite site and can lead to more serious, sometimes fatal, internal haemorrhaging, especially in the brain. Recovering from this takes many hours after venom neutralisation has been achieved with antivenom. Taipan snake procoagulants are amongst the most powerful snake venom procoagulants known. Though mild coagulopathy has been reported for inland taipan envenomation (Sutherland and Tibballs, 2001).

No nephrotoxins (kidney toxins) have so far been isolated from inland taipan snake venoms, but renal (kidney) impairment or acute renal failure can occur secondary to severe rhabdomyolysis. Taipan snake venom does contain myotoxins that cause myolysis (rhabdomyolysis, muscle damage); The urine of a bite victim often turns reddish-brown as their muscles dissolve and are passed through the kidneys (Myoglobinuria). The kidneys are often badly damaged by filtering so much tissue debris out of the blood, and kidney failure is a common complication in serious cases where there is significant envenoming.

Causes of death:
 * Paralysis = primary, e.g., respiratory failure; secondary, e.g., pneumonia
 * Coagulopathy = primary, e.g., cerebral haemorrhage; secondary, e.g., renal failure.
 * Renal failure = includes secondary complications such as infections.
 * Anaphylaxis = acute allergic reaction to venom in a patient previously exposed to taipan snake venom (e.g., reptile keeper).
 * Cardiac complications likely to be secondary.

Antivenom
Until 1955, the only antivenom available for general distribution for Australian snakes was the monovalent (specific) tiger snake (Notechis) antivenom, which gave varying degrees of cross-protection against the bites of most other dangerous Australian snakes. Thereafter followed specific anti-venom for other common snakes among them the coastal taipan, and finally, a polyvalent (broad spectrum) antivenom, a combined antivenom for the bites of any unidentified snake from Australia.

The coastal taipan anti-venom, known as "taipan antivenom", is effective against the inland taipan venom as well. But it has also been shown that it may not be as effective in bite victims of inland taipan as in the case of coastal taipan bite victims (Lalloo et al., 1995a; Trevett et a!., 1995; Southern et al., 1996; Crachi et al., 1999a; Currie, 2000).

Taipan antivenom is produced and manufactured by the Australian Reptile Park and the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories in Melbourne.

Snakebite victims
In September 2012, in the small city of Kurri Kurri, New South Wales, north of Sydney, more than 1000 kilometres away from the snake's natural environment, a teenage boy was bitten on the finger by an inland taipan. The teenager's rapid self application of a compression bandage above the wound and the availability and administration of a polyvalent (broad-spectrum) antivenom in the local hospital (his friend was carrying a plastic tub containing the snake responsible) had been crucial to his survival. The fact that he even survived the first hour has amazed wildlife experts. The boy was transferred to a hospital better equipped to handle the bite in the City of Newcastle, where he was in a serious but stable condition and specialists were monitoring him closely. The police were involved to find out how the inland taipan got to this part of Australia. The snake was most likely a stolen/illegal pet and the boy tried to feed it.

In December 2013, reptile handler Scott Grant (age 40+) who was conducting a demonstration in front of 300 people at the annual building union's picnic in Portland, Victoria had just finished showing the crowd an inland taipan and was trying to put it into a bag when it struck him. The snake got tangled in a loose thread of the bag he was putting it into. “It came out of the bag and saw my hand and got a shock and bit it. I got bitten on the left-hand thumb”. Grant had been very professional in the incident, calmly telling people he thought he had been bitten before tying up the snake bag. He had then got into his utility and tied a bandage around his arm. However a few minutes later he was lying on the ground and convulsing. He was flown in a serious condition to Essendon Airport and driven to the Royal Melbourne Hospital where his condition was stabled and finally recovering over time. Luckily only a tiny amount of venom from the inland taipan had entered his body, and the adverse reaction he felt shortly after, was an allergic one, presumably due to his past snake bites. His allergic reaction to the snake bite was being studied by the Australian Venom Research Unit at Melbourne University.

According to Rob Bredl, a.k.a. "The Barefoot Bushman", in an isolated area of South Australia his father, Joe Bredl, was bitten while catching an inland taipan and barely survived. A more recent victim was his friend John Robinson, bitten while cleaning the inland taipan's cage at his Reptile Display on the Sunshine Coast, Queensland. He weathered the bite without antivenom but sustained considerable muscle damage as well as heart damage.

Almost all positively identified inland taipan bite victims have been herpetologists handling the snakes for study or snake handlers, such as people who catch snakes to extract their venom, or keepers in wildlife parks, and all were treated successfully with antivenom. No recorded incidents have been fatal since the advent of the monovalent (specific) antivenom therapy, though it could take weeks to recover from such a severe bite.