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POLICY ORIENTED RESEARCH STUDY Policy-making has to do with making specific things happen or not happen. Policy-making has to do with making envisaged futures present and sometimes maintaining cherished pasts in the future. Above all, policy-making has to do with changing or constraining practice, in other words, the organised way work or other activities are done. Effective policy-making requires a clear understanding of the nature of policy and practice as well as the relationship between the two. It is my belief that policy-making is clouded by a series of unchallenged assumptions about what policy can do with practice. In this article I explore the relationship between the two. Policy and practice
 * Bulleted list item What should we expect of education policy as designed? As implemented?

I will briefly summarise here and complete what I have written elsewhere (2) about the nature of policy and practice. Practice is the organised way in which an individual or a group carries out a particular activity. Although it may be more or less tightly framed by guidelines or even laws, practice is necessarily the fruit of what individuals do and is largely composed of tacit knowledge rooted in the experience of those individuals and groups. Practice is difficult to exchange with peers on a large scale because it is context-bound and based on non-formalised knowledge. The major difficulty, but also advantage, with practice is its relative resistance to change. Policy is a set of statements about how a particular goal is to be reached. It seeks to structure and shape specific areas of practice of a large number of people. However only a small amount of practice is dictated by policy. Policy is generally formalised in writing, whereas much practice resides in experience. Although policy may be the fruit of wide-scale discussion, it is not based on the tacit understanding of a group like with practice, but is rather a decision of a person or body invested with authority. That decision is based on such things as underlying values or assumptions, wider concerns, research, study visits, consultation processes but also on chance encounters. The major difficulty with policy is putting it into practice. The mechanisms of policy-making

The relationship between policy and practice is largely one-way in our education systems. Much policy-making is about controlling practice. It is based on the assumption that it is possible to change the way people work by starting from a written statement (called policy) about what should be done and how it should be done (called practice). In other words, much educational policy-making is based on a mechanistic perspective of change in which policy seeks to dictate practice. The overriding metaphor is that of the machine. A number of axioms govern the mechanistic worldview. These include the fact that the properties and behaviour of the parts of the machine determine the behaviour of the system as a whole. In other words, the machine is no more than the sum of its parts. The parts of the machine can be treated like discrete objects and are interchangeable. In addition, the functioning of the machine can be understood by studying the workings of its parts. If that understanding is incomplete, it is sufficient to further divide up the parts into even smaller parts. This process is called analysis. Decisions about the management of the machine rely very heavily on measurement and quantification of the workings of the parts. Change is linear, predictable and controllable. It results from the application of forces to its parts. Prioritisation

One of the major approaches to the relationship between policy and practice – that is symptomatic of the mechanistic approach – is to artificially divide up practice into a number of distinct areas and then to focus on only one of those areas at a time. This might be called the prioritising approach. One argument in favour of this approach is that it is economical. Policy-makers sensibly argue that they don’t have the means to deal with all the issues at the same time. In addition, this strategy offers what seems a realistic way of handling the complexity of the system. Prioritisation has dominated much of the policy-making associated with the up-take of ICT in education. The first priority was installing equipment and networks. Then came the need to train teachers and the development of new methods, which in turn was followed by the challenge of online resources. Although some overlap of priorities occurred and policy-makers were aware of the underlying inter-relationship between the different areas, prioritisation implied treating them as if they could be handled separately. The result was an on-going mismatch between different but closely related areas of practice. For example, the technology was available but teachers didn’t use it because they lacked the knowledge to integrate it in their classroom practice. Only in rare cases, for example in Northern Ireland’s “Empowering Schools” strategy (3), was a holistic approach adopted and even there the actors lacked a sustainable approach to budgeting that could handle budget cuts while maintaining the holistic approach. Exemplary behaviour - Realising that practice cannot necessarily be controlled directly by decree, one indirect strategy employed by policy-makers is to use “influence by example” as a lever for change and to capitalize on networking as a “natural” vehicle to communicate those examples. Practice is said to be “good” or exemplary if it serves as an example for others, helping them to improve ways of working, making the latter more appropriate or more efficient or more satisfying. As mentioned above, however, practice cannot be communicated on a large scale because, in packaging it for communication online, it necessarily looses essential information that would be communicated in face-to-face discussion or by observing others work. There is also a key economic factor: converting experience into writing and then “re-converting” it back into practice on a large scale is not economically feasible. Empowerment - Another approach to the relationship between policy and practice is to shift the responsibility for designing change closer to the actors whose practice is concerned. This might be called the empowerment approach. The belief being that the closer the responsibility for shaping practice is to the actors whose practice is concerned, the more effective is the influence on practice itself. Increased motivation is one of the arguments in favour of such an approach. Another is the improved appropriateness of practice because decisions about practice are better aligned to local needs and culture. Such an empowerment approach works best in a system that is prepared to delegate responsibility locally as in the case of Finland were trust in the competence and responsibility of local actors is a key facet of educational culture (4) and is reinforced by other activities of the system. An empowerment approach can also be adopted in more centralised and controlling cultures, but only associated with mechanisms to ensure accountability and to monitor results. This implies a cost that includes the danger of overload for teachers. The empowerment approach clearly does not work if policy requires practice to be unified across the whole country.


 * Bulleted list item What struggles are occurring over the policy practices? SEE SATURDAY


 * Bulleted list item What is the relationship between education policy and educational practice? Policy-makers pursue policy agendas: researchers pursue knowledge: policy-makers and researchers have different agendas. These may overlap or coincide at times, but they are fundamentally different. Policy-makers implement policies in order to bring about change; they are accountable to the electorate and to other powerful stakeholders. Researchers may be increasingly concerned about the approval of funders and policy-makers, and they may pursue knowledge that has practical use, but they are also seeking knowledge in accordance with the rules of scientific enquiry and as part of a community of practice. Technical solutions are not appropriate to questions of value: the evidence-based approach relies heavily on the assumption that ideological difference in policy is no longer relevant, but education policy remains at least as much ideologically driven as evidence-driven. Research is asked to provide solutions to problems that used to be addressed through democratic debate because they involve value judgements and choices. It is not clear that research can provide such solutions but it is also doubtful whether it should do this. Research comes after policy: should it be the other way round? the logic of the evidence-based policy approach suggests that researchers should advise policy-makers about a particular problem on the basis of the evidence, a programme is then designed to address it and is subsequently implemented. In fact programmes or policy initiatives are designed by policy-makers on the basis of what they want done, and may only involve researchers in the implementation phase. What happens to practitioners? evidence-based policy and practice do not recognise practitioners’ role in Knowledge Transfer. Indeed practical experience, craft knowledge and professionaljudgement may be interpreted as barriers to transfer. Given that effective Knowledge Transfer is not linear but requires partnership, this may be problematic and it may also have consequences for teacher engagement and morale. Practitioners seem to be recipients of research, rather than interpreters or producers of actionable knowledge.


 * Bulleted list item How do you understand the role of teachers and school administrators in the process of policy change, particularly as regards policy interpretation and implementation?


 * Bulleted list item What are the intended and unintended consequences of your chosen education policy?

POLICY WRITTEN BY ME: Define the Problem Tracking children in public school systems by standardized test scores. Assemble Some Evidence o	Studies have shown that tracking is segregation by socioeconomic status and by color. o	Disproportionate placement of poor and minority student into low track does not reflect their actual learning abilities. o	Disproportion of teachers. ➢	Higher status & more experience = higher track ➢	Newer, less experienced = lower track o	Studies found that o	Studies found that curriculum varied between tracks. ➢	(Less engaging for low “stimulating” for high) o	Teachers have propensity to not challenge the children or promote higher level thinking skills for children in low track. Construct the Alternatives o	Seek ways to reduce the isolation of students groups from one another. •	Taking students and having them learn the basics, but leaving optional options for them to seek out after becoming more familiar with them. (Don’t let test scores guide which “track” students will be going.) o	Seek to expand access to valued knowledge to all students •	Using community resources to educate students on the options that are available to them once they graduate. (Community and state workers, managers, computer programmers, etc.) o	Extend high expectations to all students by showing them how to succeed and by providing them with the necessary information and support structures to do so. o	Professional development classes for teachers. Select the Criteria o	Academic performance will be evaluated for each student, grade level, and school overall annually. o	Dropout rates will be followed with the implementation of the new policy. o	Discipline issues will be followed monthly and evaluated annually. Project the Outcomes o	The achievement gap between minority and non-minority students will become reduced. o	Fewer dropouts due to every child’s ability and interest being more recognized rather than placed into a “pot” with others. o	Increase participation for African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans in AP classes. o	Achievement gap exists at all socioeconomic levels.

Confront the Trade-Offs o	Increase in poverty. o	Lack of access to jobs that pay more than minimum wage. o	Poor-quality schools o	Underprepared teachers due to not being aware of different situations surrounding each child are learning ability and interest. o	Continued low teacher expectations due to bias and racism. o	Low levels of parental involvement due to the feeling of their children not doing well in school. Decide Tracking students from an early age has taken place throughout public school history. However studies have found that minorities are often placed in lower tracks than non-minority students. Lower income students are often placed in lower tracks, often times dropping out with the frustration that comes along with not having needs met. While middle to upper socioeconomic status children are placed in classes that will direct them to two or four year colleges or trade schools. By taking a closer look at the needs and interest of each child, educators would be able to educate to the child’s ability and interest rather than to the set standard or preconceived conclusion of the child. Story Starting in middle school, teachers in one school district are asked what they believe their students are interested in, the options being, going to college, going to work in an office, or fixing things. There was not a test that was given to determine what the students were interested in and the students were not asked themselves. The district placed the children where they saw fit without consulting the parents or students themselves. By doing this, the school was able to evenly distribute the number of students in core classes, leaving less of a guessing game when it came to numbers and the need for more teachers in certain classes. The school district also benefited with the test scores.

Research Design THE ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL: RESEARCH PROCESS - PART ONE

I. Introduction

A. The introduction is the part of the paper whose main function is simply to get the reader into the chapter somewhat gradually, rather than jumping directly into the first substantive division. It can be as brief as one paragraph or as long as three or more pages (Glatthorn & Jayner, 2005, p. 164).

B. In an introduction, the writer should:

1. create reader interest in the topic.

2. lay the broad foundation for the problem that leads to the study.

3. place the study within the larger context of the scholarly literature.

4. reach out to a specific audience (Creswell, 1994, p. 42)

'''II. Background of the Study'''

A. The background of the study is intended to provide a context for the study. It describes the professional development occurring at the time that influence the study.

B. The brief literature review accomplishes several important things:

1. It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the study being reported (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990).

2. It relates a study to a larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic, filling in gaps and extending prior studies (Marshall & Rossman, 1989).

3. It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as a benchmark for comparing the results of a study with other findings.

4. It "frames" the problem earlier identified.

C. Demonstrate to the reader that you have a comprehensive grasp of the field and are aware of important recent substantive and methodological developments.

D. Delineate the "jumping-off place" for your study. How will your study refine, revise, or extend what is now known?"

E. In a proposal, the background literature review is generally brief and to the point. Be judicious in your choice of exemplars - the literature selected should be pertinent and relevant (APA, 2011). Select and reference only the more appropriate citations. Make key points clearly and succinctly.

'''III. Statement of the Problem'''

A. The problem statement describes the context for hte study and it also identifies the general analysis approach (Wiersma, 1995, p. 404).

B. A problem might be defined as the issue that exists int he literature, theory, or practice that leads to a need for the study (Creswell, 1994, p. 50)

C. A problem statement should be presented within a context, and that context should be provided and briefly explained, including a discussion of the conceptual or theoretical framework in which it is embedded. Clearly and succinctly identify and explain the problem within the framework of the theory or line of inquiry that undergirds the study. This is of major importance in nearly all proposals and requires careful attention.

D. Effective problem statements answer the question, Why does this research need to be conducted? If a researcher is unable to answer this question clearly and succinctly, and without resorting to hyper speaking i.e. focusing on problems of macro or global proportions that certainly will not be informed or alleviated by the study, then the statement of the problem will come off as ambiguous and diffuse.

'''IV. Questions'''

A. Questions are relevant to normative or census type research - How many of them are there? Is there a relationship between them? - They are most often used in qualitative inquiry, although their use in quantitative inquiry is becoming more prominent.

B. A research question poses a relationship between two or more variables but phrases the relationship as a question; a hypothesis represents a declarative statement of the relations between two or more variables (Kerlinger, 1979; Krathwohl, 1988)

C. Make a clear and careful distinction between the dependent and independent variables and be certain they are clear to the reader. Be excruciatingly consistent in your use of terms. If appropriate, use the same pattern of wording and word order in all hypotheses.

V. Purpose of the Study

A. The purpose statement should provide a specific and accurate synopsis of the overall purpose of the study (Locke, Spirduso, & Silverman, 1987, p. 5). If the purpose is not clear to the writer, it cannot be clear to the reader.

B. The purpose statement can also incorporate the rationale for the study. Some committees prefer that the purpose and rationale be provided in separate sections, however.

C. Key points to keep in mind when preparing a purpose statement 1. Try to incorporate a sentence that begins with: The purpose of the study is... This will clarify your own mind as to the purpose and it will inform the reader directly and explicitly.

2. Clearly identify and define the central concepts or ideas of the study. Some committee Chairs prefer a separate section to this end. When defining terms, make a judicious choice between using descriptive or operational definitions.

'''VI. Definitions of Terms'''

A. The purpose statement should provide a specific and accurate synopsis of the overall purpose of the study (Locke, Spirduso, & Silverman, 1987, p.5). If the purpose is not clear to the writer, it cannot be clear to the reader.

B. Formal definition is based upon a concise, logical pattern that includes as much information as it can within a minimum amount of space. The primary reason to include definitions in your paper 1. The term (word or phrase) to be defined. 2. The class of object or concept to which the term belongs. 3. The differentiating characteristics that distinguish it from all others of its class.

'''VII. Theoretical Framework (Conceptual Framework)'''

A. If a researcher is working within a particular theoretical framework/line of inquiry, the theory or line of inquiry should be introduced and discussed early, preferably in the introduction or literature review. Remember that the theory/line of inquiry selected will inform the statement of the problem, rationale for the study, questions and hypotheses, selection of instruments, and choice of methods. Ultimately, findings will be discussed in terms of how they relate to the theory/line of inquiry that undergirds the study.

B. Theories, theoretical frameworks, and lines of inquiry may be differently handled in quantitative and qualitative endeavors. 1. In quantiitative studies, one uses theory deductively and places it toward the beginning of the plan for a study. The objective is to test or verify theory. One thus begins the study advancing a theory, collects data to test it, and reflects on whether the theory was confirmed or desconfirmed by the results in the study. The theory becomes a framework for the entire study, an organizing model for ht research questions or hypotheses for the data collection procedure (Creswell, 1994) 2. In qualitative inquiry, the use of theory and of a line of inquiry depends on the nature of the investigation. In studies aiming at grounded theory for example, theory and theoretical tenets emerge from findings. Much qualitative inquiry, however, also aims to test or verify theory, hence in these cases the theoretical framework, as in quantitative efforts, should be identified and discussed early on.

'''VII. Significance of the Study'''

A. Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the area under investigation. Note that such refinements, revisions, or extensions may have substantive, theoretical, or methodological significance. Think pragmatically i.e. cash value.

B. Most studies have two potential audiences; practitioners and professional peers. Statements relating to research to both groups are in order.

C. When thinking about the significance of your study, ask yourself 1. What will results mean to the theoretical framework that framed the study? 2. What suggestions for subsequent research arise from the findings? 3. What will the results mean to the practicing educator? 4. Will results influence programs, methods, and interventions? 5. Will results contribute to the solution of educational problems? 6. Will results influence educational policy discussions? 7. What will be improved or changed as a result of this research? 8. How will results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will come about?

'''IX. Limitations and Delimitations'''

A. A limitation identifies potential weakness of the study. Think about threats to internal validity. B. A delimitation addresses ow a study will be narrowed in scope, how it is bounded. This is a place to explain what you are not doing and why you are not doing it. Limit your delimitations to the thinks that a reader may reasonably expect you to do but that you, have not done.

X. Chapter Overview

A brief discussion of what was presented in Section One and what will be presented in section 2.

THE ELEMENTS OF A PROPOSAL: THE LITERATURE REVIEW - PART TWO

I. Review of the Literature

A. The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research problem. It should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about the area (Wiersma, 1995).

B. The literature review accomplishes several important things.

1. It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the study being reported (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990). 2. It relates a study to the larger, ongoing and dialogue in th elierature about a topic, filling in gaps and extending prior studies (Marshall & Rossman, 1989). 3. It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as a benchmark for comparing the results of a study with other findings. 4. It frames the problem earlier identified.

C. Demonstrate to the reader that you have a comprehensive grasp of the field and are aware of important recent substantive and methodological developments.

D. Delineate the jumping off place for your study. How will your study refine, revise, or extend what is now known?

E. Avoid statements that imply that little has been done in the area or that what has been done is too extensive to permit easy summary. Statements of this sort are usually taken as indications that the writer is not familiar with the literature.  F. In a proposal, the lit review is generally brief and to the point. Be judicious in your choice of exemplars the literature selected should be pertinent and relevant (APA, 2001). Select and reference only the more appropriate citations. Make key points clearly and succinctly.

THE ELEMENTS OF A PROPOSAL: THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY - PART THREE

The methods are the procedures used to acquire empirical evidence and analyze it for purposes of answering research questions, testing hypothesis, and examining foreshadowed problems, following up on conjectures, and going forward from exploratory questions. The choice of methodology should be made in light of the literature review and with careful deliberation. Small oversights can sometimes undermine a long and difficult study.

Methodology Quant: Briefly reintroduce the problem and provide an overview of the methodological approach. Qual: Breifly indicate the perspective that will shape the study.

Research Questions/Hypoteses Quant: State the specific research questions or hypotheses to be investigated. There are 4 basic classes: Descriptive (What is the achievement level of students?), Associational (Is self-concept related to achievement?), Causal (Does low self-concept depress educational acheievement?), cost-benefit (Do benefits exceed the cost?) Hypothese are used in experimental research. It is sometimes nonexperimental. Qual: State the foreshadowed problems or questions that guided the inquiry. They can be descriptive, associational, and causal questions.

Research Procedures Quant: Describe in detail the sampling, data-collection and data analysis procedures. For the design, describing the timing of the data collection relative to any naturally occurring interventions. For sampling, describe the population of interest, the sampling frame used, the sampling procedures and sample size, response rates, and missing data rates. For data collection, indicate whether you used established instruments or created your own, and why. For data analysis, indicate coding procedures used for open-ended responses and precautions used to ensure valid coding. Qual: Describe in detail how the inquiry was undertaken. Introduce the epistemology that will guide the inquiry. Explain the theoretical perspective that will drive the research and why it was selected. Indicate the methodology used and why it was selected. Indicate specific methods used and the justification for them. Indicate how you managed your qualitative data. Did you take notes, record, etc. Indicate how you analyzed and interpreted your data, making sure the analysis was consistent with the selected methodology.

COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION DR. GREEN

Standard(s)	 Scenarios	                              Theories 3 & 4 - The Consequences of Working in Isolation - Change, Leadership, Trait, Behavioral, Power & Authority, Decision-Making, Human Relations

1,2,3 - The New Principal at Frost - Change, trait, behavioral, Contingency & Situational Leadership, Power & Authority, Decision Making

1 - Changing the Way We Teach Science - Motivational, Communication, Human Relations

3 - Understanding & Predicting Individual - Organizational, Social System, Open Social Systems,and Group Behavior in Schools Theories on Learning, Organizations, Theory X and Theory Y

2 - Addressing Dysfunctional Thinking - Organizational, Social Systems, Conflict Management, Open Social Systems, Theories on Learning Organizations, Decision – Making, Motivational

3 & 4 - One of the Bus Contracts Has Been Cancelled - Decision Making, Communication, Organizational, Conflict Management

2 & 3 - The Tardy Policy Killed Kato - Communication, Social Systems, Decision-Making

1 - The New Professional Development Plan - Communications, Social Systems, Decision-Making

5 & 6 - The Requested Change - Decision-Making, Group Dynamics, Social Systems

5 - Retaining the Student Recognition Program - Decision- Making, Group Dynamics, Social Systems

3 - The Disciplinary Plan - Conflict Management, Decision – Making, Communication

5 - I Am Your New Principal - Conflict Management, Decision-Making, Communication

6 - The Assignment of an Assistant Superintendent of Instruction - Conflict Management, Decision-Making, Communication 2 & 4 - Just Get Those Test Scores Up - Change, Decision-Making, Communication, Social Systems

1 - The Strategic Planning Process - Change, Decision-Making, Communication, Social Systems

BEHAVIOR THEORIES - Gary Yuki (1989) Leader patterns of activities and categories of behavior. Leadership behavior has an influence on the performance of the group.

CHANGE THEORY - Kurt Lewin's process of change consists of 3 steps. 1 - Unfreezing - Unfreezing is the process which involves finding a method of making it possible for people to let go of an old pattern that was counterproductive in some way. Dealing with going to where the problem is. Unfreezing is necessary to overcome the strains of individual resistance and group conformity. Unfreezing can be achieved by the use of three methods. First, increase the driving forces that direct behavior away from the existing situation or status quo. Second, decrease the restraining forces that negatively affect the movement from the existing equilibrium. Third, find a combination of the two methods listed above. 2. - Moving “Moving to a new level or Changing” - This stage involves a process of change in thoughts, feeling, behavior, or all three, that is in some way more liberating or more productive. Find what needs to be changed and change it! 3. Refreezing - Refreezing is establishing the change as a new habit, so that it now becomes the “standard operating procedure.” Make it stick! Without this stage of refreezing, it is easy to go back to the old ways.  CHANGE AGENTRY THEORY - Michael Fullen - Four capacities of change: 1. a personal vision need to be built in order for there to be a change. 2. Inquiry must then take place. 3. Mastery needs to be experienced. 4. Collaboration with others.

CONTINGENCY THEORY House's Path-Goal Theory is the importance of situational factors on task accomplishment and psychological state of followers. Leader behavior is shaped and constrained by situational factors.

COMMUNICATIONS THEORY - Giles - People in intercultural encounters who see themselves as unique individuals will adjust their speech style and content to mesh with others whose approval they seek. People who want to reinforce a strong group identification will interact with those outside the group in a way that accentuates their differences.

CONTINGENCY & SITUATIONAL THEORY - Fiedler-This theory states that a leader’s effectiveness is contingent on how well the leader’s style matches a specific setting or situation. And how, you may ask, is this different from situational theory? In situational the focus is on adapting to the situation, whereas contingency states that effective leadership depends on the degree of fit between a leader’s qualities and style and that of a specific situation or context.

DECISION MAKING THEORY - Can be regarded as the mental processes (cognitive process) resulting in the selection of a course of action among several alternative scenarios. Every decision making process produces a final choice. The output can be an action or an opinion of choice.

EARLY TRAIT THEORY - Ralph Stogdill (1948) identifies specific characteristics that contribute to an individual's ability to perform in a leadership role. It is an assumption that leaders have characteristics and traits that are different from those they lead.

GOAL-SETTING THEORY - Robert House (1971) suggests that an effective way to motivate people is to set challenging but realistic goals and to offer rewards for goal accomplishment. Expectancy theory explains why people work hard to attain work goals.

GROUP DYNAMICS

HUMAN RELATIONS THEORY - Mayo - Human relations movement emerged around 1930s in United State of America to cope with dehumaniztion of individuals in organizations; it emphasized on the study of the behavior of workers in organizations, and examined the effects of social relations, motivation and employee satisfaction on productivity.

The theory makes school administrators to view workers in terms of their psychology and fit within the school system rather than as inter-challengeable parts.

LEADERSHIP THEORY - Different styles of leadership

LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS - Senge & Dufour - People expand their capacity to create the results that they truly desire. It is necessary for leaders to devote time and attention to the structure of the school, individuals, and their relationship with students as well as each other.

MOTIVATIONAL THEORY - Herzberg - the first to show that satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work nearly always arose from different factors, and were not simply opposing reactions to the same factors, as had always previously been (and still now by the unenlightened) believed.

OPEN SOCIAL SYSTEMS THEORY - Owens - An organization that functions as a social system has a set of interrelated parts that interact with its external environment and as a result is capable of self-maintenance. Leaders should be prepared to respond to a variety of external influences that affect internal teaching and learning. They also shoudl develop the skills needed to convert output through a transformative process.

ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY - Warren Bennis - The approach intended to change the beliefs attitudes, standards, culture, and structure of organizations so they can better adjust to new challenges. The top leader must be actively on board with a strong leader who is persistent and has a vision. The vision needs to be translated into a plan so everyone in the organization can understand and carry out. Carrying out the plan means communicating with everyone and modifying policy and procedure if needed.

POWER THEORY - John French and Bertom Raven (1993) How effective leaders use power. Leaders influence followers through power acquired from various sources.

RELATIONSHIP THEORY - Dufour - Individuals exhibit behavior that reaches high ethical and moral standards. Leaders should develop relationships with individuals in the internal and external environments of the schoolhouse. Through relationships, leaders can make a connection between themselves and individuals who can influence teaching and learning. SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP - Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard (1977,1982) Four leadership styles: 1. Telling and Directing 2. Selling and Coaching 3. Participating and Support Behavior 4. Delegating Steps to Situational Leadership: 1. Make an overview of employee's task 2. Assess the employee at each task 3. Decide the leadership style that will be used 4. A discussion between the leader and employee will take place 4. The joint plan takes effect OVERALL THOUGHTS FROM GREEN: attempt to provide some understanding of the relationship between effective leadership styles and the maturity level of the followers by adding the level of maturity. This theory suggests that different situations require different styles of leadership. That is, to be effective in leadership requires the ability to adapt or adjust one’s style to the circumstances of the situation. The primary factors that determine how to adapt are an assessment of the competence and commitment of a leader’s followers. The assessment of these factors determines if a leader should use a more directive or supportive style.

SOCIAL SYSTEM THEORY - Senge - There is a set of interrelated elements that function in a particular manner in order to achieve a specific purpose. The leader is focused on the whole (faculty), parts of the whole (individual faculty members) and the relationships between and among the parts (faculty members).

STATES OF CHANGE MODEL - JAMES PROCHASKA - 6 Stages: 1. People do not want help because they do not see themselves as having a problem. 2. Contemplation State - Time is spent thinking about the problems 3. Preparation/determination Stage - A commitment made by the person. 4. Action/Willpower stage - Power is most depended on. Stage 5 - Maintenance Stage 6 - Relapse

THEORIES ON LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS - Senge - organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to see the whole together. While all people have the capacity to learn, the structures in which they have to function are often not conducive to reflection and engagement.

THEORY X & THEORY Y - In 1960, Douglas McGregor formulated Theory X and Theory Y suggesting two aspects of human behaviour at work, or in other words, two different views of individuals (employees): one of which is negative, called as Theory X and the other is positive, so called as Theory Y. According to McGregor, the perception of managers on the nature of individuals is based on various assumptions.

TRAIT THEORIES - The trait model of leadership is based on the characteristics of many leaders - both successful and unsuccessful - and is used to predict leadership effectiveness. The resulting lists of traits are then compared to those of potential leaders to assess their likelihood of success or failure.

Transformational TheoryBurns - This theory states that leadership is the process by which a person engages with others and is able to create a connection that results in increased motivation and morality in both followers and leaders. It is often likened to the theory of charismatic leadership that espouses that leaders with certain qualities, such as confidence, extroversion, and clearly stated values, are best able to motivate followers. The key in transformational leadership is for the leader to be attentive to the needs and motives of followers in an attempt to help them reach their maximum potential. In addition, transformational leadership typically describes how leaders can initiate, develop, and implement important changes in an organization. This theory is often discussed in contrast with transactional leadership.

1. How would you use capacity to transform a school? MICHAEL FULLEN, PHD. Utilizing best practices to enhance academic achievement of students. Capacity also means utilizing highly developed skills in the areas of planning, organization, communication, interpersonal relations, group processes, problem solving, and the change process. *Improve student learning in all content areas. *Close persistent achievement and opportunity gaps.* Strive for higher standards and prepare for new assessments. * Improve transparency and communication with families. * Expand access to and innovative use of emerging technology. 1. Develop Parent Leadership Community organizing depends on parent leaders to move forward and sustain the agenda of systemic school change. Consequently, community groups invest considerable effort on leadership development. This process involves knowledge and skill development and the exercise of leadership roles. Build Social Capital Social capital refers to the relationships of trust and reciprocity within and across communities that form the basis of collective action. Through one-on-one conversations and small group meetings parents share their stories. These stories stir up empathy and invite parents to support each other in their strengths (Blanc, Brown, Nevarez-La Torre, & Brown, 2002). By discovering similar experiences and aspirations, parents become invested in working as a group. Mobilize Collective Power Although low-income communities do not have economic power, they capitalize on their collective political power and strategic alliances to accomplish their goals. Parents participate in collective action that serves different purposes. One such purpose is to affirm community power among people who have traditionally been powerless. The IAF, for example, conducts neighborhood walks around the school periphery to rally public support for schools that have made a commitment to work with the community around common goals. It also uses public assemblies to transform communities' understanding of their strength and efficacy by giving parents set roles in conducting and speaking at these gatherings (Shirley, 1997).

2. What practices, processes, and procedures would you use to transform an underperforming school?

3. What are some of the proven leadership practices used by leaders of today's schools? Servant leadership have a high regard for the individuals with whom they work. These leaders have a good understanding and make a connection with the people of the school and community. Decision making - Can be regarded as the mental processes (cognitive process) resulting in the selection of a course of action among several alternative scenarios. Every decision making process produces a final choice. The output can be an action or an opinion of choice. Communication - Giles - People in intercultural encounters who see themselves as unique individuals will adjust their speech style and content to mesh with others whose approval they seek. People who want to reinforce a strong group identification will interact with those outside the group in a way that accentuates their differences. Conflict Management - Change - Unfreeze, change, refreeze Transformational leadership happens when people have ideas and motives to use resources to engage others who follow. It raises the level of human behavior and expectations, both the leader and the person who follows (Burns, 1978). The leader and follower are bound together around a set of common beliefs, values, and norms (Green, 2010). The leadership style most often used is transformational, as they are considered to be servants. Transactional leadership has a relationship that is clearly defined between leader and follower. Distributive leadership is the area of instruction, the process of sharing responsibilities. Collective Efficacy is when the faculty share their belief that collectively they have the capacity to produce the desired effects. Expectancy theory advises that the motivational level of school faculty members will depend on their mental expectations about their ability to successfully complete an assigned task, their ability to achieve the desired level of performance, and the desirability of the reward that will be received as a result of complete the assigned task. Followers have needs and leaders have goals. Leadership is about building cohesive and goal-oriented teams that are capable of working together to accomplish objectives. (Green, 2013).

4. How would you define collaboration? Work in concert with others who may have diverse interests to enhance student achievement. Websters: To work jointly with others especially in the intellectual setting.

5. What are some of the basic theories informing leadership for today's schools? ORGANIZATIONAL THEORIES - Classical, Human Relations, Social Systems, Open System LEADERSHIP THEORIES - Theory X & Y, Trait theories, Behavior Theories, Contingency Theory, Transformational and Charistmatic theories, Self Leadership Theories MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES - Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg's Two Factor Theory, Expectantcy Theory, Equity Theory

6. How would you describe a theoretical framework? Each study is based on a theoretical framework. It is a representation for all of the concepts, variables, and relations involved in the study. With the purpose of clearly identifying what will be explored, examined, measured, or described. As a researcher, you must find out what you read, identify the key concepts and reference all material.

7. How would you describe a conceptual framework?Using the path goal theory, I will explain a conceptual framework as the following: Students in poverty stricken areas are not aware of opportunities surrounding their community. Exposure to the world that surrounds their community brings about awareness. The students then gain ideas, dream and gain confidence from exposure. The ideas, dreams and confidence from exposure are put into practice, having these ideas get out into the world around them. The child is them obtaining a maximum learning opportunities for education and life. FROM WEBSITE: The College of Education’s Conceptual Framework provides direction for the development of effective professionals. It is a living document that continuously evolves as opportunities and challenges emerge. The four components of the CF are the institutional standards used for candidate assessment in undergraduate and graduate programs. They are Knowledge of the Learner (KL), Strategies and Methods (SM), Content Knowledge (CK), and Professional Standards (PS). Diversity, Technology, and Dispositions are included in the assessment process as themes that are integrated throughout all programs in the educational unit.

8. What is a logical rationale for understanding the use of theories? 1. Help explain a puzzling or complex issue and to predict its occurrence in the future * Learning is a latent variable so there is no clear and universal way to explain and predict learning. To help explain this process, therefore, theories based on differing epistemological positions have been developed to explain the procedure. 2. Allow the transfer of information in one setting to that of another * The complex and comprehensive conceptual explanations provided within the framework of a theory can be applied in different settings. Theories provide different "lenses" through which to look at complicated problems and social issues, focusing their attention on different aspects of the data and providing a framework within which to conduct their analysis (Reeves, Albert, Kuper, & Hodges, 2008). 3. Theories provide greater opportunities for improvement by design * By providing information about the mechanisms underlying learning and performance, an awareness of theories and can help us to design environments to improve potential for learning. In terms of the application of psychological theories about learning and instruction to education, Sternberg (2008) proposes five reasons: 1. Doing so enables one to have a scientific basis for education in how people think, feel, and/or motivate themselves rather than only to guess what intuitively might make sense. 2. Good theories are specific enough to specify what the educational interventions should look like. 3. If the theory is sufficiently specific, it will also specify what the assessments of instruction should look like. 4. Good theories are disconfirmable, so they provide the basis for discovering whether the intervention actually does or does not work. 5. One of the best ways to test theories and advance is through practical implementations.

9. What are the 4 Dimensions of Leadership as theorized by Green, 2010? a. understandings self and others b. understanding the complexity of organizational life, c. building bridges through relationships, and d. engaging in leadership best practices (Green, 2010). The Four Dimensions of Leadership consists of an understanding of self and others, understanding the complexity of organizational life, engaging in leadership best practices, and building bridges through relationships. To further explain how the Four Dimensions run, we need to imagine a building, erected with two solid pillars in the front, lit for the whole outside to see.

By having an understanding of self and others (Stage 1), picture an extremely strong building. It is a necessity to know who you are as a person and a professional and also to be aware of those surrounding you. With a strong sense of self, there is a strong building in which to be aware of and built upon.

The pillars erected in front of the building, are there to support the building. Without these pillars, the building would not be able to function to its full capacity. Each pillar represents a stage, pillar one represents an understanding the complexity of organizational life (Stage 2) and pillar two represents engaging in leadership best practices (Stage 3). There is a need not only to understand the complexity of organizational life, but also to be constantly engaged in practices of leadership.

And finally, in order for the building to run effectively, wiring must be in place. Building bridges through relationships (Stage 4), is similar to the wiring in a building. The wires that light buildings and keep everything “alive” are similar to the relationships that leaders form can keep the organizations alive and running.