User:Lbenedict/Siphonophorae

For some reason, I can't edit my own sandbox edits?

Gelatinous Plankton- (Madinand &Harbison 2001)

Siphonophora (Access Science)- (Pugh 2014)

Latitudinal changes in siphonophore assemblages across the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean- (Kuyper, Thibault, & Gibbons 2020)

Ideas for editing Siphonophora (Joshua Kim):

See annotated bibliography for references.

-Adding images of bioluminescence or distribution

-Gelatinous Plankton-Talk about a part of their reproductive cycle: Sometimes, siphonophores break off to separate and spread in a sexually active state called eudoxids

-Siphonophora (Access Science)- Add to the development of Siphonophores: One fertilized egg becomes free floating and has two budding zones. The zone in the front of the egg develops nectophores, which are mainly used for locomotion. The zone behind the egg builds a cormidium section.

-Add more information on the mechanism used to direct food towards them with the tentilla and red bioluminescent light?

-Latitudinal changes in siphonophore assemblages across the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean- Under history section, usage of Siphonophores: Siphonophores can be used to indicate measurements of water mass and movement.

Ideas for Editing Siphonophore Article (Lizzy):


 * Add information about evolutionary hypothesis
 * Dunn Article: Evolutionary Hypotheses
 * 1. As time has gone on, there has been an increase in number of zooid types
 * 2. The last common ancestor had many types of zooids and the diversity seen today is due to loss of zooid types
 * The research done shows no evidence supporting hypothesis 1 and some evidence in support of hypothesis 2


 * Add section about different lures found in different genus/species
 * Haddock Paper:
 * Focused specifically on the genus Erenna to conduct their study
 * When young, the tentilla of organisms in the Erenna genus contain only bioluminescent tissue, but, as the organism ages, red fluorescent material is also present in these tissues
 * Also observed a unique flicking behavior that was associated with the tentilla
 * Mapstone Paper:
 * As mentioned in the article by Purcell, Agalma okeni use their lure as a mimic device
 * Other siphonophores that use lures as a mimicry device include Athorybia rosacea, Athorybia lucida, Lychnafalma utricularia, and, due to their similar movements, possibly even Physophora hydrostatica
 * A. rosacea mimic fish larvae, A. lucida are thought to mimic larvacean houses, and L. utricularia mimic hydromedusa
 * Some siphonophores, specifically Resomia ornicephala uses light to attract prey
 * Though other species compete for the same food source, which is krill, R. ornicephala are thought to be successful in their hunting due to lures
 * The tentillum fluoresce green and blue
 * As mentioned in the article by Haddock, Erenna use red fluorescent lures
 * These lures attract prey, and it is thought that they might even be used to mimic a fish from the Cyclothone genus


 * Do we want to describe tentilla? There isn't really even a wikipedia page for it
 * See above sections for descriptions of tentilla


 * Already added some information on red fluorescence and bioluminescence, and on movement
 * Look at wikipedia page (linked above) to see what I already added to the article as one of the training module exercises
 * I think you can see specifically what I wrote if you click on my name--if you can't find it, let me know and I can add it here!
 * Do we want to add more photos to the page?
 * Added: Bioluminescence
 * Morphology (looking at the peer reviews a lot mention that this would be helpful)
 * Added to Article: Bioluminescent Lures
 * Bioluminescent lures are found in many different species of siphonophores, and are used for a variety of reasons. Species such as Agalma okeni, Athorybia rosacea, Athorybia lucida, and Lychnafalma utricularia use their lures as a mimicry device to attract prey (cite Mapstone). A. rosacea mimic fish larvae, A. lucida are thought to mimic larvacean houses, and L. utricularia mimic hydromedusa (cite Mapstone). The species Resomia ornicephala uses their green and blue fluorescing tentilla to attract krill, helping them to outcompete other organisms that are hunting for the same prey (cite Mapstone). Siphonophores from the genus Erenna use bioluminescent lures surrounded by red fluorescence to attract prey, and possibly mimic a fish from the Cyclothone genus (cite Mapstone). The prey is lured in through a unique flicking behavior associated with the tentilla (cite Haddock). When young, the tentilla of organisms in the Erenna genus contain only bioluminescent tissue, but, as the organism ages, red fluorescent material is also present in these tissues (cite Haddock).
 * Added to Article: Morphology
 * Since their origin, an increase in the number of zooid types has been observed in siphonophores (cite Dunn). Scientists have determined two possible evolutionary hypothesis for this observation: 1. As time has gone on, the amount of zooid types has increased (cite Dunn). 2. The last common ancestor had many types of zooids and the diversity seen today is due to loss of zooid types (cite Dunn). Research shows no evidence supporting the first hypothesis, and have seen some evidence in support of the second (cite Dunn).

Ideas for Editing Siphonophore Article (Antonia):

Bioluminescence Section


 * Original Text:
 * Nearly all siphonophores have bioluminescent capabilities. Since these organisms are extremely fragile, they are rarely observed alive. Bioluminescence in siphonophores has been thought to have evolved as a defense mechanism. Siphonophores in the genus Erenna are thought to use their bioluminescent capability as a lure to attract fish. This genus is one of the few to prey on fish rather than crustaceans. The bioluminescent organs on these individuals flicker, and thus it has been concluded that they use bioluminescence to attract prey. In addition to their use of bioluminescence, organisms in the genus Erenna use red fluorescence to attract prey.
 * Change Original Text:
 * "Siphonophores of the deep-sea genus Erenna (found at depths between 1,600-2,300 meters) are thought to use their bioluminescence capability for offense too, as a lure to attract fish."
 * "The bioluminescent organs (tentilla) on these non-visual individuals emit red-fluorescence along with a rhythmic flicking pattern, which attracts prey as it resembles smaller organisms such as zooplankton and copepods. Thus, it has been concluded that they use bioluminescence as a lure to attract prey.
 * I like these edits, but maybe take out/edit this last sentence, since fluorescence isn't bioluminescence. --Lizzy
 * I drafted out a second paragraph in the bioluminescence section about how lures are used, which we could edit a little to incorporate the ideas from your last sentence into! --Lizzy
 * Add Text:
 * "There is a view that deep-sea organisms can not detect long wavelengths, and red light has a wavelength of 680 nm. If this is the case, then fish are not lured by Erenna, and there must be another explanation. However, the deep-sea remains largely unexplored and we should not discard red-light sensitivity." (last sentence may be biased?)
 * I think that either we should reword this to be more concrete, or not include it. Maybe instead of "There is a view..." we could say "Some research indicates..." --Lizzy
 * Cite: Haddock, Steven H. D., Dunn, Casey W., Pugh, Philip R., Schnitzler, Christine E. (2005). Bioluminescent and Red-Fluorescent Lures in a Deep-Sea Siphonophore. Science, vol. 309, p. 263. DOI: 10.1126/science.1110441
 * Cite: Mapstone, Gillian M. (2014). Global Diversity and Review of Siphonophorae (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa). Public Library of Science, vol. 9, 2. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0087737

Predation and feeding Section


 * Original Text:
 * Siphonophores are predatory carnivores. Their diets consist of a variety of copepods, small crustaceans, and small fish. A majority of siphonophores have gastrozooids that have a characteristic tentacle attached to the base of the zooid. This structural feature functions in assisting the organisms in catching prey. Similar to many other organisms in the phylum of Cnidaria, many siphonophore species exhibit nematocyst stinging capsules on branches of their tentacles called tentilla. The nematocysts are arranged in dense batteries on the side of the tentilla. When the siphonophore encounters potential prey, they utilize their 30–50 cm (12–20 in) tentacles to create a net around the prey. The nematocysts then shoot paralyzing, and sometimes fatal, toxins at the trapped prey which is then transferred to the proper location for digestion.
 * Change Original Text:
 * "Their diets consist of a variety of copepods, small crustaceans, and small fish. Generally, the diets of strong swimming siphonophores consist of smaller prey, and the diets of weak swimming siphonophores consist of larger prey. A majority of siphonophores have gastrozooids that have a characteristic tentacle attached to the base of the zooid. This structural feature functions in assisting the organisms in catching prey; species with large gastrozooids are capable of consuming a broad range of prey sizes."
 * For the last sentence, at the end we could say "despite their swimming behaviors" or something similar. --Lizzy
 * "The nematocysts then shoot millions of paralyzing, and sometimes fatal, toxins at the trapped prey which is then transferred to the proper location for digestion." (would I have to use a citation for "millions"?)
 * I don't think so! --Lizzy


 * Cite: Purcell, Jennifer E. (1980). Influence of Siphonophore Behavior upon Their Natural Diets: Evidence for Aggressive Mimicry. Science, vol. 209, pp. 1045-1047. DOI: 10.1126/science.209.4460.1045

Movement Section


 * Original Text:
 * Siphonophores use a method of locomotion similar to jet propulsion. A nectophore is a gathering of many siphonophores, and depending on where each individual siphonophore is positioned within the nectophore, their function differs. Colonial movement is determined by individual siphonophores of all developmental stages. The smaller individuals are concentrated towards the top of the nectophore, and their function is turning and adjusting the orientation of the colony. Individuals will get larger the older they are. The larger individuals are located at the base of the colony, and their main function is thrust propulsion. These larger individuals are important in attaining the maximum speed of the colony. The colonial organization of siphonophores, particularly in Nanomia bijuga confers evolutionary advantages. A large amount of concentrated individuals allows for redundancy. This means that even if some individual siphonophores become functionally compromised, the colony as a whole is not negatively affected.
 * There's a major mistake in this paragraph, located in the second sentence: "A nectophore is a gathering of many siphonophores, and depending on where each individual siphonophore is positioned within the nectophore, their function differs." Instead, it should say "A siphonophore is a gathering of many nectophores, and depending on where each individual nectophore is positioned within the nectophore, their function differs."


 * Change Original Text:
 * "Siphonophores use a method of locomotion similar to jet propulsion. A siphonophore is a complex aggregate colony made up of many nectophores, which are clonal individuals that form by budding and are genetically identical. Depending on where each individual nectophore is positioned within the siphonophore, their function differs. Colonial movement is determined by individual nectophores of all developmental stages. The smaller individuals are concentrated towards the top of the siphonophore, and their function is turning and adjusting the orientation of the colony. Individuals will get larger the older they are. The larger individuals are located at the base of the colony, and their main function is thrust propulsion. These larger individuals are important in attaining the maximum speed of the colony. Every individual is key to the movement of the aggregate colony, and understanding their organization may allow us to make advances in our own multi-jet propulsion vehicles. The colonial organization of siphonophores, particularly in Nanomia bijuga confers evolutionary advantages. A large amount of concentrated individuals allows for redundancy. This means that even if some individual nectophores become functionally compromised, their role is bypassed so the colony as a whole is not negatively affected."
 * Good catch on the error! And this looks good to me! --Lizzy
 * Nanomia bijuga also practices diel vertical migration, as it remains in the deep during the day but rises during the night. This could potentially contribute to the Movement section.
 * They also exhibit forward and reverse swimming, so we can include that, too. --Lizzy
 * Cite: Costello, John H., Colin, Sean P., Gemmell, Brad J., Dabiri, John O., Sutherland, Kelly R. (2015). Multi-jet propulsion organized by clonal development in a colonial siphonophore. Nature Communications, vol. 6, 8185. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9158

Discovery Section


 * Original Text:
 * Carl Linnaeus discovered and described the first siphonophore, the Portuguese man o' war, in 1758. The discovery rate of siphonophore species was slow in the 18th century, as only four additional species were found. During the 19th century, 56 new species were observed due to research voyages conducted by European powers. The majority of new species found during this time period were collected in coastal, surface waters. During the HMS Challenger expedition, various species of siphonophores were collected. Ernst Haeckel attempted to conduct a write up of all of the species of siphonophores collected on this expedition. He introduced 46 "new species"; however, his work was heavily critiqued because some of the species that he identified were eventually found not to be siphonophores. Nonetheless, some of his descriptions and figures (pictured below) are considered useful by modern biologists. A rate of about 10 new species discoveries per decade was observed during the 20th century. Considered the most important researcher of siphonophores, A. K. Totton introduced 23 new species of siphonophores during the mid 20th century. On April 6, 2020 the Schmidt Ocean Institute announced the discovery of a giant Apolemia siphonophore in submarine canyons near Ningaloo Coast, measuring 15 m (49 ft) diameter with a ring approximately 47 m (154 ft) long, possibly the largest siphonophore ever recorded.
 * Change Original Text:
 * "There is absolutely no fossil record of siphonophores, though they have evolved and adapted for an extensive time period. Their phylum, Cnidaria, is an ancient lineage that dates back to c. 640 million years ago." (Is the second sentence redundant?)
 * Maybe: "Despite the phylum Cnidaria dating back to 640 million years ago, there is no fossil record of siphonophores." --Lizzy
 * Cite: Mapstone, Gillian M. (2014). Global Diversity and Review of Siphonophorae (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa). Public Library of Science, vol. 9, 2. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0087737

Distribution and habitat Section


 * Original Text:
 * Currently, the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) identifies 175 species of siphonophores. They can differ greatly in terms of size and shape, which largely reflects the environment that they inhabit. Siphonophores are most often pelagic organisms, yet level species are benthic. Smaller, warm-water siphonophores typically live in the epipelagic zone and use their tentacles to capture zooplankton and copepods. Larger siphonophores live in deeper waters, as they are generally longer and more fragile and must avoid strong currents. The majority of siphonophores live in the deep sea and can be found in all of the oceans. Siphonophore species rarely only inhabit one location. Some species, however, can be confined to a specific range of depths and/or an area of the ocean.
 * Change Original Text:
 * "Smaller, warm-water siphonophores typically live in the epipelagic zone and use their tentacles to capture zooplankton and copepods. Larger siphonophores live in deeper waters, as they are generally longer and more fragile and must avoid strong currents. They mostly feed on larger prey."
 * Cite: Mapstone, Gillian M. (2014). Global Diversity and Review of Siphonophorae (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa). Public Library of Science, vol. 9, 2. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0087737

Additional Ideas


 * Add a section discussing siphonophore tentilla and nematocytes?
 * Add a section about the presence and environmental impact of siphonophores on the Chilean coast?
 * Add a section about siphonophore ecological roles (e.g. Muggiaea atlantica's negative effect on salmon farming)?
 * Add more on the siphonophore Portuguese Man o' War (Physalia physalis) (found in tropical/subtropical regions, floats on the surface due to air bladder, navigates due to erectile sailing crest, dactylzooids are capable of discharging venomous toxins that can potentially cause vasomotor dysfunction and collapse, etc.)?
 * I was wondering about this, but I feel like we should just link to the wikipedia page for this species and people can read about it there. --Lizzy
 * Add more photos to make the text more engaging?
 * Yes!! Morphology and bioluminescence!! --Lizzy
 * I added one for bioluminescence! --Lizzy