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Issues in African American Music: Power, Gender, Race, Representation is a collection of twenty-two chapters by leading scholars and practitioners of African American (or Black) music edited by ethnomusicologists Portia K. Maultsby and Mellonee V. Burnim, both professors at the Indiana University. Published by Routledge in 2017, it is a companion volume to African American Music: An Introduction edited by the same authors published by Routledge in 2014. While the earlier volume was "a survey of major African American musical genres, both sacred and secular, from slavery to the present," the collection offers "analyses of African American music based on ethnographic fieldwork, which privileges the voices of the music-makers themselves, woven into a richly textured mosaic of history and culture."

According to a review by ethnomusicologist Cheryl Keyes, both projects are an outgrowth of the 3rd volume in the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: The United States and Canada. Praise from others on the back of the book include blurbs by Yale professor and author Daphne Brooks, who describes the book as an "indispensable anthology" offering critical and political approaches to reading multiple genres of black music such as "the intersecting politics of black music and mass culture, the impact of gender on black musicking, and the trajectories of black sonic activism." A blurb by University of Pennsylvania professor and author Guthrie P. Ramsey, Jr. describes the text as "smartly argued" in ways that will define the "next generation of scholars, activists, students, and fans."

Editor Portia Maultsby is the Laura Boulton Emerita of Ethnomusicology in the Department of Folklore and Ethnomusicology and Research Associate in the Archives of African American Music and Culture at Indiana University. Editor Mellonee Burnim is also a Professor of Ethnomusicology in the Department of Folklore and Ethnomusicology, Adjunct Professor of African American and African Diaspora Studies, and Director of the Archives of African American Music and Culture at Indiana University.

Contributors are all notable authors such as Olly Wilson, Reebee Garofalo, Sherrie Tucker, Cheryl L. Keyes, Lawrence Levine, Bernice Johnson Reagon--one of the founding members of the SNCC Singers, and Mark Anthony Neal. They all hold Ph.D.'s primarily from the discipline of ethnomusicology as well as history, (historical) musicology, popular music studies, and African & African American Studies.

A summary of several chapters follows that demonstrates prominent issues of historical and contemporary relevance. The most significant contribution this volume provides to the study of music in academic contexts is a feminist intervention; it offers representations of black women and transgender issues in the histories of gospel, blues, jazz historiography, women's music, rock n' roll, and hip hop. Each chapter is accompanied by a discography of recommended listening for further study. Readers will learn to re-examine the origins and omissions that shape African American or Black music. The volume offers rich ethnographic insights from cultural insiders that aid scholars and fans interested in controversies such as cultural appropriation since the days of Elvis Presley.

The anthology includes a preface, acknowledgments, extensive biblography, descriptions of the editors and contributors, and an index. It is divided into four major units: Part I - Interpreting Music, Part II - Mass Mediation, Part III - Gender; Part IV - Musical Agency--African American Music as Resistance. The entire volume is over 400 words in length.

Contents
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 * 1Chapter 3: The Politics of Race Erasure in Defining Black Popular Music Origins
 * 1.1Contesting Blackness in Narratives of Black Music
 * 2Chapter 4: Negotiating Blackness in Western Art Music
 * 3Chapter 6: Industrializing African American Popular Music
 * 4Chapter 7: The Motown Legacy: Homegrown Sound, Mass Appeal
 * 5Chapter 11:
 * 6Chapter 15: Jazz History Remix: Black Women from "Enter" to "Center"
 * 7Chapter 17: African American Women and the Dynamics of Gender, Race, and Genre in Rock'n' Roll
 * 8Chapter 18: "Ain’t Nuthin’ But a She Thang": Women in Hip Hop
 * 9Chapter 20: The Civil Rights Period: Music as an Agent of Social Change
 * 10Chapter 21: The Post-Civil Rights Period: The Politics of Musical Creativity
 * 11References

Chapter 3: The Politics of Race Erasure in Defining Black Popular Music Origins[edit]
Written by Portia Maultsby, this chapter discusses the importance of exploring the history of Black popular music through the social and cultural lenses through they were created. Maultsby argues that critics of Black popular music often ignore, or don't consider, the voices of those who created this music. African American music is understood and experienced differently by those who listen, so it is important to understand the context with which the music was made. Maultsby also argues that approaching critical analysis of African American popular music this way will produce recognition for everyone involved in creating it.

James Brown created music in two contrasting styles, recording music with a different set of principles than ones he performed with. During performances, he was guided by the practices and values that are identified with Black worship. Brown was highly influenced by Black preaching because he was exposed to it a very young age. While recording music, Brown was influenced by European American mainstream practices and values. Certain aspects that he altered included the intensity of his shouts and screams, and the call-and-response interaction that took place between the band and the audience.Though he had to make changes in his music while recording, he still kept aspects that he felt were ethnically relevant.

Brown’s significant cultural sound ended in seventy-seven. Federal/King recordings landing on the Billboard “Top Singles R&B” charts, fourteen of said recordings gained the #1 spot, whereas thirty-end landed within the top ten. This amount of success came over the span of thirteen years, which helps the claims that Brown’s recordings were notable among his fans, who were mostly African American. Especially, his live performances and the vivacious character of his studio recordings held stylistic features that previously resonated with African American fanbases, and have also differentiated various sounds within historical and modern African diaspora.

Brown was able to connect with his fans on a different level just with the power of his music. African music was considered to translate everyday experiences and turn it into living sound. Artists such as James Brown, relied on audience feedback, which is considered vital in music because that is how an artist is able to connect with its fans through shared experience. Brown's in person shows demonstrate customs of his black fans. Cliff White describes Brown's shows, as focusing on how the band drives the funk.

Brown lost touch with the core of his fan base (African Americans) when he went more mainstream to sell records. However, he and other black artists, such as Little Richard were very influential. Elvis Presley and many world famous American music legends emulated their style and sound. This being very respectable, especially as their musical era was during a time where black artists weren't acknowledged by all.

The white community's version of Rhythm and Blues threw the musical contributions of the black community into the shadows; taking away it's true musical form. Rhythm and Blues leader, Louis Jordan stated that "what the white artists have done... they started the publicity and eliminating talk of Black artists. They eliminated talking about who did what and how good it was, and they started talking about white artists."

Contesting Blackness in Narratives of Black Music[edit]
Since the twentieth century, race and Black music have been a topic of interest. In a letter titled "'Black Music,' 'Afro-American Music' and 'European Music'," White musicologistPhillip Tagg suggested that race is a bigger factor when it comes to what is considered "black music" than culture. He asserted that different musical aethetics set "Black Music" apart from "White Music." Black musicologist Guthrie Ramsey challenged Tagg assertions. He argued for understanding blackness as a practice that "ethnicity and nearly every other aspect of identity should be considered a performance. Blackness doesn't really exist until it is done, or practiced, in the world". Maultsby quotes composer Olly Wilson who elaborates that musical blackness is "the way [italics added] of doing something, not simply something that is done." sound, style, and behavior. In other words, blackness is a "conceptual approach to a creative process." For example, if one were to witness different genres of traditional African American Music being performed, e.g., gospel or jazz, one would experience both the visual aspects of Blackness as well as the heteogenous sounds associated with styles of Black music or "musical blackness" such as moans, hollers, or cries.

The perfect example of this would be the difference between the Simon and Garfunkel version of "Bridge Over Troubled Water" and the Aretha Franklin version. In the Simon and Garfunkel take on the song, it shows emotional along with being a melodically uncomplicated song. However, the Aretha Franklin interpretation shows extreme emotion through howls, timbre, and moans. Franklin carries a very soulful voice throughout the song.

Throughout the past, hundreds of African Americans were denied the access to many key elements of basic music making including popular venues, major record companies, mainstream publishers. Soon enough White record company executives saw the potential of "Black Music" and black artists. White artists then covered their songs, stole their style and made it mainstream, discrediting the original Black owners.

Chapter 4: Negotiating Blackness in Western Art Music[edit]
Written by composer and scholar Olly Wilson, the contents of this chapter introduces the concept of “double consciousness", which was introduced by W.E.B. DuBois. Attributed to the experience of being marked by race in America, Wilson describes how being an [[African-American during the civil rights movement (1954–1968).African Americans comes with a “second sight" [page number added as a citation needed here--we do not use in-text citation on Wikipedia]. Understanding and experiencing the strife of being an African American in the “land of the free” and also obtaining the knowledge and resources of being an American are key components of what the author was trying to present. Both sights are essential and accommodate each other in a person’s life.

African Americans were known for being musically gifted individuals due to their, "multi-dimensional sound". This sound involves different rhythms, tones, and noises that gives African American music a unique touch.

Some of the most notable figures in African American music, are Louis Armstrong and Ellington. They were stewards in peeking the interest of the whites experience into the African American musical experience and guarded against unreasonable ideologies projected on to blacks from white society.

One of the notable genres, created by African Americans, is Hip-Hop/Rap music. Rap music derived from the urban areas of young Black neighborhoods. As presented in this chapter, this music is special because it utilizes musical components such as: rhythm, call and response, antiphony and oral tradition.

African American music derives its uniqueness from the legacy of music from the past. The process of making music within an African American context proves that is it unavoidable to incorporate some aspect of the culture. According to Wilson, the music of African Americans is reflective of life past, present, and future and never fails to overcome the effects of time.

Chapter 6: Industrializing African American Popular Music[edit]
Written by Reebee Garofalo, Professor Emeritus at University of Massachusetts-Boston, this chapter...

Chapter 7: The Motown Legacy: Homegrown Sound, Mass Appeal[edit]
Written by ethnomusicologist Charles E. Sykes, , this chapter examines the rise and success of Berry Gordy and Motown, the company he built in Detroit, Michigan.

Through music, style, image, choreography, and repertoire, Gordy developed his brand on the likelihood that non-Blacks would appreciate and buy records by black artists with a certain style and flair he and his team cultivated from head to toe. Sykes claimed Motown came together during a time when African-American music and artists were not respected. The music industry, he argued, was racist and unwilling to accept African American music without a sense of its sophistication. Berry Gordy's main goal was to have African-American music, as well its creators and participants, flourish in the modern music industry of during the 1960s. Motown produced artists such as Diana Ross who became highly respected and sought after around world. Gordy suspected that Ross's "whiney voice" (p126) was preferable as the lead for The Supremes. This hunch on his part helped launch what became an international career.

Before Motown, Berry Gordy worked at the 3D Record Mart. When it failed, he turned to R&B. He hit success working as a writer for popular singer, Jackie Wilson. Berry further solidified his success when he wrote songs for Wilson including “Reet Petite (1957),” “To Be Loved(1957),” “Lonely Teardrops(1958),” and “I’ll Be Satisfied(1959).”

Chapter 7 explains how Americans today tend to think Berry Gordy's vision at Motown Records emphasizes reaching both Black and White audiences. In actuality, his vision thrived due to his middle-class family in Detroit. From it, his parents instilled marketable skills, values, and principles such as self-help and social consciousnes, which provided a foundation for creating a successful Black business following the uprisings of the Civil Rights era. Gordy not only had a desire for Black artists to overcome racial barriers that plagued Black music, he invented a platform that touched the souls of cultures around the world. His work reflected a vision far greater than the limitations of American race relations.

Through the years, Motown was faced with challenges and difficulties, but the company managed and continued to acknowledge and represent its roots in the black community. The mere existence of a black company like Motown Records was a major feat during the 1960's as well as into the 1980's. Sykes offers Motown Records as a prime example of upholding one of the ideals of the Civil Rights Movement: Black economic independence. The company did not rely on the financing from the automotive industry of Detroit. This ideal was emphasized by radical activists such as Malcolm X and the Freedom Now Party.

Motown represented an ideal of racial integration, exemplified by Martin Luther King Jr.. With Motown, Gordy created electric music that had appeal to people from every background. s, can be seen in the creation of his record label. < Is all that follows actually written by Sykes??> Motown legacy's continues developing a new wave of sound notably used today in popular music, media, radio, television, and etc. Many new artists of today are known for sampling original Motown artist. [Is this an ad lib? You cannot write things that are NOT written by the author unless you have a source to back it up. It's possible to find articles about this and THEN you could add something about it.]

Chapter 7 Discography: [Look at other discographies to see how this might look in an existing article]

Gaye, Marvin. The Master, 1961–1984. Motown Master Series 3145304922, 1995. 4-CD set. Hitsville USA: The Motown Singles Collection, 1959–1971. Motown 3746363122, 1992. 4-CD set. Hitsville USA: The Motown Singles Collection, 1972–1992. Motown 3746363582, 1993. 4-CD set. The Jackson 5. Soulsation! 25th Anniversary Collection. Motown Master Series 3145304892, 1995. 4-CD set. Smokey Robinson and the Miracles: The 35th Anniversary Collection. Motown Master Series 374 636 334–2, 1994. 4-CD set. The Temptations: Emperors of Soul. Motown Master Series 31453–0338–2,

Chapter 15: Jazz History Remix: Black Women from "Enter" to "Center"[edit]
Written by Sherrie Tucker, this chapter talks about how it would be hard to know what jazz music would sound like today without Billie Holiday's phrasing, timbre and timing. Also without Mary Lou Williams shaping of the distinctive Kansas City sound. Women's relative acceptance in dance has also made possible their active participation in the jazz community.

Brenda Dixon Gottschild created the word "invisibilize" to describe the removal of existence in history. Women were often victims of being invisibilized. After realizing sources that are considered to be reliable and accurate tend to dismiss the contributions of women in Jazz, the history of the genre is perceived as a "man's world." Even though there is an abundant amount of evidence demonstrating the existence of women in the jazz industry, the perception of an industry being dominated by men clouds the efforts of both men and women who were trying to change this. Because this is a perception most people tend to have, the long careers of trumpet players like Ann Cooper and Valaida Snow, saxophonists Margaret Backstrom and Vi Burnside, and trombonist Melba Liston are obscured.

" Visibilizing" Women in Jazz History

From 1981 to 1984, women-in-jazz historians such as D.Antoinette, Sally Placksin, and Linda Dahl worked to restore women's placement in the history of jazz. They used primary and secondary sources which were previously neglected such as the Black press and interviews. Although they found affirmations of women's prominent involvement in jazz music, they also discovered how women were portrayed throughout the genre. Women of the jazz era were marketed typically, for their physique and visual aesthetic, instead of their musicality.

New Orleans: A Case Study

No place is more synonymous with Jazz music than New Orleans. Following the turn of the century, New Orleans was a "cosmopolitan caribbean hub" that featured many different ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious, class, and national identifications. All of the different social groups and their changing gender roles lead to more women being involved with Jazz. For the most part women generally didn't play the big band instruments that created the Jazz sound, but in some case like in Houma, Louisiana, women were featured imembers of the band. Sherrie Tucker advocates for more work to be done on the role of women in early Jazz. In 2004 the New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park produced a report about women in Jazz titled: A Feminist Perspective on New Orleans Jazzwomen (2004) This report while extensive, does not cover everything related to Jazz and Women. Women during this time were more likely to play the piano as opposed to bass instruments. Alot of African American women Jazz players often had religious backgrounds and often were able to read music. These women contributed a great deal to jazz and often bandleaders would rely on them when they needed someone to read the cords and teach other members to read as well.

Chapter 17: African American Women and the Dynamics of Gender, Race, and Genre in Rock'n' Roll[edit]
In this chapter, written by anthropologist Maureen Mahon, the author challenges race-based assumptions about the genre of Rock and Roll including "the industry's habitual marginalization of women" that has led to the invisibility of African American women on stage and as background singers primarily for white artists and bands. Since the 1950’s, African American women have had an extraordinary influence in the rock genre. Big Mama Thornton 's "Hound Dog" in 1953 as a pivotal example. Elvis Presley's 1956 version often upstages memories Thorton's forceful vocal style and swagger in both sound and stage presence.

The roots of Rock and Roll are based in African American music practices which focus on musical and vocal inflections, linguistic choices, and body movements attributed to African American performers before the 50s.

Many African American women artist such as the group the Labelle and Betty Davis broke away from the traditional African American women  performances. Their style and non-traditional performances first confused the music industry, but their mixing of different such as rock, funk, rhythm and blues, and gospel captivated a large audience.Their provocative styles broke away from stereotypes and demonstrated women are talented and are more than  a sex symbol.

Chapter 18: "Ain’t Nuthin’ But a She Thang": Women in Hip Hop[edit]
Written by ethnomusicologist Cheryl Keyes, this chapter examines the relationship between women and hip hop music and analyzes the contributions that women in hip hop.

Hip hop has roots that stem from the Black and Latino youth in New York City during the early 1970s. Hip hop has been defined as a genre of music that encompasses the inner city experience. It's known to be an outlet for individuals to express their daily struggles. The culture of Hip Hop is compressed of four elements which are breakdancing, graffiti, DJing and MCing. It has also expanded to become a form of musical expression that has "distinct forms of dress, gesture, and language that embody an urban street consciousness".Influencing American culture and society, as well as the black community in America. Hip Hop has affected and inspired America, talking up for ages and giving a voice to a gathering of individuals endeavoring to convey a message. It has given a stage to MCs and rappers to express their thoughts about society, the government and the treatment of African Americans in America for a considerable length of time.

Hip Hop and MCing is primarily associated with aggressive, masculine male figures such as groups Run-DMC, Bone Thugs-n-Harmony, N.W.A. However, since it's emergence, women have been hugely involved both behind the scenes and in the forefront. One of the first female hip hop groups was Mercedes Ladies. Mercedes Ladies were known for their highly skilled and proficient performances. Having formed in the Bronx around the 1970's, this all-female group realized that independence, confidence, observation and excitement was what was going to help propel their career forward.

The persona of the, "fly girl" originated from the Boogie Boys’ “A Fly Girl” (1985). A "fly girl" is an independent woman knows what she wants and obtains it herself. By being unapologetic of herself, she standing out. This type of women dominated hip hop in its golden age and can be applied to artists like Salt-n-Pepa and Lauryn Hill. Another example is Missy Elliott. She stands out for her talent for displaying hip hop’s latest fashions on her full figured body frame and combined with her finger waved hair (well known as ‘Missy Waves’ according to fans). Overall a "fly girl" is a woman who is confident, proud, beautiful and is not afraid to speak her mind.

Chapter 20: The Civil Rights Period: Music as an Agent of Social Change[edit]
Written by performer/scholar Bernice Johnson Reagon, this chapter discusses the use of music as a tool to drive the Civil Rights Period. Taking-off in 1955, the Montgomery Bus Boycott initiated a period of social and political protest, where the African American communities challenged issues of race and equality in American society.

Spreading across the South, Black college students traveled into segregated rural and urban communities to fight for voting rights, the ability to find a job, and equality in some of the simple civil liberties such as public facilities. They could support from local leaders, ministers, and independent business people. In response, those who supported the movement faced economic reprisals, jail time, and death threats. The Civil Rights Movement still proved to be resilient in its continual growth pulling in members from Black and White communities.

Music has been an essential element in African Americans struggle for freedom. Black artists shaped the music culture of the Civil Rights Movement by creating freedom songs. The combination of traditional oral expressions and experiences of everyday struggles made freedom songs and other hymms so influential to this movement. One of the most memorable freedom songs of this era was "Amen" which used tradition from the black church. Freedom songs were often sang at times during the civil rights period and were sometimes referred to as "freedom anthems". Freedom songs were used to pull sections of the black communities together when all other means of communication were ineffective. The Songs were used as an expression of power and communal unity. During the 1955 Montgomery Alabama, Alabama bus boycott freedom songs were used for communal unity. Other notable artist during this time were Hollis Watkins, Willie Peaccock, and the Freedom singers.

Chapter 21: The Post-Civil Rights Period: The Politics of Musical Creativity[edit]
Written by Duke Professor Mark Anthony Neal, this chapter explores...