User:Lihini 2/sandbox

Industrial Melanism
'''Grant, B. S., Cook, A. D., Clarke, C. A., & Owen, D. F. (1998). Geographic and temporal variation in the incidence of melanism in peppered moth populations in America and Britain. Journal of Heredity, 89(5), 465-471.'''

Sample populations of Biston bitularia(peppered moths) were examined from England and a few eastern states in America to analyze the correlation of melanism in the moths and the presences of sulfuric pollution in the atmosphere. Each situation showed that when pollution laws were enforced and sulfuric levels went down the frequency of darker colored moths also decreased along with the increasing population of light colored moths.

'''Majerus, M. E. (2009). Industrial melanism in the peppered moth, Biston betularia: an excellent teaching example of Darwinian evolution in action. Evolution: Education and Outreach, 2(1), 63-74.'''

Relates the example of industrial evolution in the peppered moths to the explanation of Darwinian Evolution. Takes critiques of the example being used to explain Darwinism and explains why they are invalid accusations. Uses evolutionary genetics and other proven ideas to explain the essence of Darwinian evolution through the mutation of the peppered moth, and prove the critiques wrong.

'''McIntyre, N. E. (2000). Ecology of urban arthropods: a review and a call to action. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 93(4), 825-835.'''

States the ecological aspects of all different types of arthropods, and methods of retrieving information on them. Small section on Industrial melanism basically goes over the whole genetic variation situation of the peppered moth. Brief description on what factors attribute to the color of the moth being selected for and how environmental changes can change the frequencies.

'''Mikkola, K., & Rantala, M. J. (2010). Immune defence, a possible nonvisual selective factor behind the industrial melanism of moths (Lepidoptera). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 99(4), 831-838.'''

Analyzes the immune system of each type (dark or light colored) of black arches moth (Lymantria monacha) to see if there is other factors for favored selection of dark moths over light moths in areas of high air pollutants. Nylon monofilament implants were introduced to both types to analyze the encapsulation response to the new element. The darker colored moths had a stronger response. And because melanin pigment is involved in this response this result shows that there may be an immune response factor that may be getting selected for as a side factor of industrial melanism.

'''van’t Hof, A. E., Edmonds, N., Dalíková, M., Marec, F., & Saccheri, I. J. (2011). Industrial melanism in British peppered moths has a singular and recent mutational origin. Science, 332(6032), 958-960.'''

Examined the genetic composition of peppered moths. Looked for the genetic reasoning behind the wild-type (light colored) moths and the carbonaria (dark colored) moths. Construction of a linkage map was used to identify the location of the carbonaria mutation. The location was confirmed with fluorescence in situ hybridization. It was found that this type of melanism is caused by a single mutation found in chromosome 17 of the peppered moth.

Outline
Basic Understanding of Industrial Melanism: Background of industrial melanism and how it's involvement with the peppered moth is one of the clearest examples of Darwinian evolution.

Genetics: The chromosomal location of carbonaria and the genetic process relating to colored phenotype in Lepidoptera.

Other factors of Industrial Melanism: Other benefits from the condition, including non visual aspects such as immune system benefits.

Rough Draft
Industrial Melanism is an effect of urban pollution known to be prominent in many different species of arthropods. Industrial melanism is a term explaining the phenomenon of an organism developing a higher fitness to dark pigmentation when exposed to an environment that is polluted by dark soot deposit and sulfuric buildup. The most common case of this adaptation is found in the arthropod order, Lepidoptera. This order of insects encompasses all insects with microscopic scaled wings, like moths and butterflies. Specifically the best example of industrial melanism noted to display Darwinian evolution is found in the peppered moth, Biston bitularia. Originally the peppered moths lived in an environment where light-colored lichens covered the trees where they would rest. To camouflage with the tree they originated with a light colored pigment that helped them to avoid predators by not being a visual distraction. Eventually the industrial pollution ravaged the area and sulfur dioxide began to kill the light-colored lichens off the trees. This exposed the dark bark of the moths resting place, creating a drastic contrast in color and making the light colored moths more vulnerable to predation. In this situation best depicting Darwinian evolution, the peppered moth began to develop as a darker population because the fitness of the darker moths gained an advantage in the new dark environment. Eventually the whole pollution consistent of peppered moths with dark colored pigments.

Other examples of species thought to undergo the selection of industrial melanism are Adalia bipunctata (two-spot ladybird),

In each of these situations, the melanized form of the organism was found in an environment related to the higher amounts of industrial pollution found in the area.

Many studies have been done to determine if indusrial melanism is an actual factor in determining pigment, but it is hard to prove. It is thoroughly noted that higher populations of darker pigmented organisms develop when there is an increase in industrial pollution in the area, but the relationship can not be fully proved.

Industrial melanism is mostly concerned with the visual effects of melanation. The idea is that the darker pigmentation helps to camouflage the organisms better in a environment darkened by pollution and therefore heightens the fitness by making it less accessible to predators. But there is a few other ideas about why melanation can help improve fitness for these populations that are not correlated to any visual effect at all. It is theorized that organisms that experience melanation have better immunity to toxic chemicals put into the environment by industrial pollution. This idea was examined in a study by..... They found that

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Industrial Melanism is an effect of urban pollution known to be prominent in many different species of arthropods. Industrial melanism is a term explaining the phenomenon of an organism developing a higher fitness to dark pigmentation when exposed to an environment that is polluted by dark soot deposit and sulfuric buildup. This change in dominance as a result of modification in selection pressure is one of the best-noted cases of Darwinian evolution. The most common case of this adaptation is found in the arthropod order, Lepidoptera. This order of insects encompasses all insects with microscopic scaled wings, like moths and butterflies. Specifically, the best example of industrial melanism is found in the peppered moth, Biston bitularia. Originally the peppered moths lived in an environment where light-colored lichens covered the trees where they would rest. To camouflage with the tree they originated with a light colored pigment that helped them to avoid predators by not being a visual distraction. Eventually, the industrial pollution ravaged the area and sulfur dioxide began to kill the light-colored lichens off the trees. This exposed the dark bark of the moths resting place, creating a drastic contrast in color and making the light colored moths more vulnerable to predation. This slowly altered the balance of the population as light-colored moths were not surviving to reproduce and pass on their genes to the next generation and the darker-colored moths began to exceed in reproduction due to their new found rise in fitness. (2) This reversal of survivability made the gene contributing to melanic forms of the moth more desirable. As generations went on, eventually the population of peppered moths transformed from the majority being light-colored moths to the majority being dark-colored moths. Other examples of species thought to undergo the selection of industrial melanism are Adalia bipunctata (two-spot ladybird), In each of these situations, the melanized form of the organism was found in an environment in correlation to higher amounts of industrial pollution found in the area. Many studies have been done to determine if industrial melanism is an actual factor in determining pigment, but it is hard to prove. It is thoroughly noted that higher populations of darker pigmented organisms develop when there is an increase in industrial pollution in the area, but the relationship can not be fully proven because the exact reason for increase in survivability can not be tracked and pin-pointed. (3) To further solidify the theory of industrial melanism as an actual selection factor within evolution, surveys of melanic population rates and changes in atmospheric condition have been reported to establish and confirm trends of industrial melanism. As government regulations of air quality control have been implemented throughout the United States and the United Kingdom, researchers have collected data on melanic populations before and after the sterilizing effects of these regulations. According to their results melanic population rates are consistent with the theory of industrial melanism, meaning that the level of melanic population was directly correlated to the abundance of contaminated air quality. When the levels of atmospheric pollution were high, so was the population rate of dark-colored moths and when the levels of atmospheric pollution were low there was a decline of melanism in the population. (4) Industrial melanism is mostly concerned with the visual effects of melanation. The idea is that the darker pigmentation helps to camouflage the organisms better in an environment darkened by pollution and therefore heightens the fitness by making it less accessible to predators. But there are a few other ideas about why melanation can help improve fitness in air-polluted areas for these populations that are not correlated to any visual effect at all. It is theorized that organisms that experience melanation have better immunity to toxic chemicals put into the environment by industrial pollution. Other studies have been conceived to find other aspects of melanation contributing to the survivability of the organism other than visual inconspicuousness. In the black arches moth ( ‘’Lymantria monacha’’ ), it has been determined that the darker pigmented forms have also developed a stronger immune response to foreign objects with the attribution of the melanic pigment. The same melanic pigment that contributes to the visual coloration of the moth is also involved in the encapsulation process of foreign invaders through the immune defense of the dark-colored form of the organism. (5) Physiologically, the melanism biosynthesis of insects is caused by enzyme-mediated substrate transformations. But the ways the enzymes are regulated are a little more complex. Originally, the only genetic information known about the ‘’carbonaria’’ (dark-colored) form was that it is found at a single locus and it is a dominant allele to the light-colored wild-type. But by mapping the ‘’carbonaria’’ morph to a linkage group, that is originated by vertical descent from the same gene of the last common ancestor to the ‘’Bombyx mori’’ (silkworm), and confirming results with fluorescent in situ hybridization, researchers located the actual loci of the ‘’carbonaria’’ gene on chromosome 17 of ‘’Biston bitularia’’. (6)

Final Draft
Industrial Melanism is an effect of urban pollution known to be prominent in many different species of arthropods. Industrial melanism is a term explaining the phenomenon of an organism evolving a dark pigmentation when exposed to an environment that is polluted by dark soot deposit and sulfuric buildup from industrial pollution. In these types of cases of industrial melanism, the darker pigmented individuals develop a higher fitness, and are favored by natural selection. This change in favoritism as a result of modification in selection pressure is one of the best-noted cases of Darwinian evolution. The most common case of this adaptation is found in the arthropod order, Lepidoptera. This order of insects encompasses all insects with microscopic scaled wings, like moths and butterflies. Some specific species thought to undergo the selection of industrial melanism are Adalia bipunctata (two-spot ladybird), Hamadryas feronia (variable cracker butterfly), Odontoptera bidentata (scalloped hazel moth), Odontoptera bidentata (tawny marbled minor moth), Oligia strigilis (marbled minor moth), and many other species of moths. But probably the best and most studied example of industrial melanism is found in the peppered moth, Biston bitularia. Originally the peppered moths lived in an environment where light-colored lichens covered the trees where they would rest. To camouflage with the tree they originated with a light colored pigment that helped them to avoid predators by not being a visual distraction. Eventually, the industrial pollution ravaged the area and sulfur dioxide began to kill the light-colored lichens off the trees. This exposed the dark bark of the moths resting place, creating a drastic contrast in color and making the light colored moths more vulnerable to predation. This slowly altered the balance of the population as light-colored moths were not surviving to reproduce and pass on their genes to the next generation and the darker-colored moths began to exceed in reproduction due to their new found rise in fitness. This reversal of survivability made the gene contributing to melanic forms of the moth more desirable. As generations went on, eventually the population of peppered moths transformed from the majority being light-colored moths to the majority being dark-colored moths.

In each of these situations, the melanized form of the organism was found in an environment in correlation to higher amounts of industrial pollution found in the area. Many studies have been done to determine the reasons for the favoritism of darker pigmentation. Most studies aim to define the mechanism as a visual camouflage factor that gives the darker pigmented individuals a higher fitness, but some studies try to find other ways that melanization can be an asset, and in turn more favorable than the lighter pigmented individuals. It is thoroughly noted that higher populations of darker pigmented organisms develop when there is an increase in industrial pollution in the area, but the relationship can not be fully proven because the exact reason for increase in survivability can not be tracked and pin-pointed. To further solidify the theory of industrial melanism as an actual selection factor within evolution, surveys of melanic population rates and changes in atmospheric condition have been reported to establish and confirm trends of favoritism of darker pigmented individuals in an industrially polluted area. As government regulations of air quality control have been implemented throughout the United States and the United Kingdom, researchers have collected data on melanic populations before and after the decontaminating effects of these regulations. According to their results, melanic population rates are consistent with the theory of industrial melanism, meaning that the level of melanic population was directly correlated to the abundance of contaminated air quality. When the levels of atmospheric pollution were high, so was the population rate of dark-colored moths and when the levels of atmospheric pollution were low there was a decline of melanism in the population.

Industrial melanism is mostly concerned with the visual effects of melanization. The idea is that the darker pigmentation helps to camouflage the organisms better in an environment darkened by pollution and therefore heightens the fitness by making it less accessible to predators. But there are a few other ideas about why melanization can help improve fitness in air-polluted areas for these populations that are not correlated to any visual effect at all. It is theorized that organisms that experience melanization have better immunity to toxic chemicals put into the environment by industrial pollution. Other studies have been conceived to find other aspects of melanization contributing to the survivability of the organism other than visual inconspicuousness. In the black arches moth ( Lymantria monacha ), it has been determined that the darker pigmented forms have also developed a stronger immune response to foreign objects with the attribution of the melanic pigment. The same melanic pigment that contributes to the visual coloration of the moth is also involved in the encapsulation process of foreign invaders through the immune defense of the dark-colored form of the organism. This enhanced defense against foreign invaders is helpful in an environment contaminated by industrial pollution because the toxins that are put out into the air have less chance of negatively affecting the inhabitants of that environment.