User:Lisa Marie Oliver/sandbox

Temporal Discounting (or delay discounting) refers to the process where an individual selects an immediate smaller reward in favour of a larger delayed reward. This is suggested to occur due to an individual discounting the value of the reward as time progresses. Therefore a larger reward in the future is discounted in subjective value to where the immediate reward seems more appealing. If an individual selects the larger delayed reward rather than the smaller immediate reward, then they are seen as delaying gratification. Delayed gratification is seen as the reverse of temporal discounting.

Temporal discounting is associated with reduced self-regulatory behaviours, such as reduced self control, impulse control and willpower. Due to this reduction in self-regulatory behaviour, temporal discounting has been implicated as an underlying factor within a range of psychological problems. Research has implicated temporal discounting within substance abuse, gambling and obesity. Cognitive processes suggested to underlie the phenomenon are decreased cognitive resources within working memory, competing emotional and cognitive networks , as well as perception and processing of the rewards. Within neuropsychological research results indicate that age and brain maturation, competing emotional and cognitive reasoning areas of the brain and increased levels of dopamine can increase discount behaviour. Other processes suggested to contribute to increased discount behaviour are gender, control , engagement and schooling. Research within behavioural literature focuses on reducing discount behaviour.

=Determinants=

Working Memory
It has been suggested that higher cognitive skills are associated with reduced temporal discounting. One study demonstrated that increasing cognitive load and therefore decreasing cognitive resources, results in increased temporal discounting. Whereas improving working memory and increasing cognitive resources has been shown to result in decreased temporal discounting. Furthermore research indicates that deficits or impairments within working memory may be implicated in increased discount behaviour.

Construal Level Theory
Construal Level Theory proposes that the variance in an individual's response to immediate and future events is due to temporal discounting and mental representation. The theory suggests that individuals select the immediate option over delayed due to a lack of certainty and clarity in future rewards. This uncertainty is suggested to occur as future rewards appear intangible as attention focuses on more broad abstract details. Whereas immediate rewards appear more vivid and certain, this is attributed to individuals orientating more attention to specific details when processing the information.

Cognitive-Affective Processing System
The Cognitive Affective Processing (CAPS) system was a theory proposed to explain why individuals behave differently across situations. The CAPS model has been broken down into two classifications; a cold and hot system. The cold system is suggested to be the cognitive element of processing and is located in the hippocampus. The hot system is suggested to be the emotional element, which is underpinned by the amygdala and partially the mesolimbic dopamine system. An individual is likely to show increased levels of discounting when the hot system is prominent in the decision making process. However always inhibiting the response of the hot system, to delay gratification, can lead to an individual's core needs not being fulfilled. Therefore a balance between the hot and cold systems is seen to be most effective for the individual.

Neural Systems
Research has also investigated localisation of systems involved during decision-making. Two systems within the brain appear to be activated when an individual is choosing between immediate and delayed rewards. The first system suggested to be involved is the socio-emotional network and is localised in the limbic and paralimbic areas. The second system is the cognitive control network and is localised in the lateral prefrontal cortices. The socio-emotional network is presumed to play a role in impulsivity, whereas the cognitive control network is involved in future orientation. Research indicates that these two systems compete against each other. When the socio-emotional network is dominant then the individual will be more likely to select immediate rewards. When the cognitive control network is dominant then the individual will be more likely to select the delayed reward.

Brain Maturation
Rates of temporal discounting have been shown to decrease with maturation. One study demonstrates this with children (mean age 12.1 years) showing more discount behaviour in comparison to college students (mean age 20.3 years) and older adults (mean age 67.9 years). The study showed that older adults showed the least discount behaviour. Age differences are suggested to occur due to brain developmental changes during adolescence. This is supported with research indicating that maturation of areas associated with foresight and planning, future orientation, is still occurring during an individual's mid-20's.

Neural Mechanisms
Dopamine has been implicated in reward discounting. The mesolimbic dopamine pathway has been shown to underpin the decision-making process when selecting choice of reward. When the mesolimibic dopamine system is dominant in the decision-making process the individual is more likely to select the immediate reward. However blood glucose has been implicated in the reduction of temporal discounting behaviour. One study demonstrated that consuming a glucose drink instead of a drink with artificial sweeteners, results in individuals being less likely to select immediate rewards and more likely to delay gratification. This is suggested to occur as blood glucose plays a role in self control.

Socio-cultural Explanations
Socio-cultural factors have been implicated in the role of temporal discounting. Gender has been shown to effect discount behaviour, with females showing higher levels of self control and reduced discount behaviour in comparison to males. Research also indicates that when an individual has self-imposed control, in comparison to external, they are more likely to successfully delay gratification It has been suggested the schooling leads to increased levels of discount behaviour and reduced self control, as it teaches children to expect instant rewards. However research indicates that engaging a participant in a task can aid them in successfully delaying gratification, whereas if the reward is distracting this can cause on increase in discount behaviour.

Behavioural Explanations
Behavioural explanations suggest that reinforcement plays a key role in increased levels of temporal discounting. Being able to delay gratification is seen as adaptive ability, which helps individuals with positive social interaction. Due to this research within the behavioural domain and temporal discounting focuses on interventions that encourage delay of gratification.

=Methods of Investigation=

Further Assessment
=Applications=

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Temporal discounting has been implicated in some psychological disorders, such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). One study demonstrated that individuals with ADHD tended to show a preference for immediate small rewards over large delayed rewards, in comparison to a control group. A reason proposed for ADHD participants selecting immediate rewards is a deficiency in inhibiting and suppressing their responses. It may also indicate that they value future consequences less than the 'normal' population. Furthermore individuals with ADHD show similar levels of discounting behaviour too young non-ADHD children. Executive functioning has been implicated in ADHD participants discounting behaviour Issues with executive functioning are suggested to influence impulsivity and attention to stimuli.

Gambling
Gamblers when compared to non-gamblers have been shown to select more immediate rewards than delayed. One study researched the difference in temporal discounting between gamblers with substance abuse and non-gamblers with substance abuse. Results indicated that those who gambled as well as abused drugs displayed higher rates of temporal discounting. It is suggested that this may occur due to the link between self-regulation issues and addictive behaviours.

Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa has been linked to a decrease in temporal discounting. Individuals with Anorexia Nervosa are seen as having high self-control in relation to food and monetary rewards. In contrast research with overweight participants has indicated that women demonstrate higher levels of temporal discounting than healthy control participants. However these effects are not consistent across gender, with men not differing significantly from their controls.

Substance Abuse
Substance abuse has been associated with increased levels of temporal discounting. One study demonstrated that temporal discounting plays a role in the development and maintenance of substance abuse. Research with opioid-dependent participants in comparison to non-drug users, indicated that opioid-dependent participants showed significantly more delay discounting behaviour than control participants. Furthermore opioid-users discounted heroin faster than they did when money was the delayed stimulus. Another study indicated that heroin addicts discount at twice the rate of non-drug user controls. Within substance abuse temporal discounting has also been linked to alcohol abuse. Research indicated that alcohol abusers discount alcohol faster than they do when money is the stimuli.

=See Also=
 * Delayed Gratification
 * Temporal Discounting in Economics
 * Temporal Motivation Theory
 * Impulsivity
 * Stanford Marshmallow Experiment

=References=

=External Links= Monetary Choice Questionnaire