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Textbook of General Botany (Dutch: Leerboek der Algemeene Plantkunde), first published in 1942, is a Dutch textbook written for higher education in the field of botany. The book is separated into two volumes, splitting the material into its descriptive part in Volume I and its experimental part in Volume II. The first edition was edited by Prof. Dr. Victor Jacob Koningsberger and was co-authored by 9 other Dutch botanists. For the second edition, which was published in 1942, Prof. Dr. E. Reinders replaced Koningsberger as the editor in chief of Volume I. The book was written to expand upon the outdated Textbook of General Botany, which was first published in 1923 and edited by F. C. Went. The new textbook was commissioned in 1937 by Scheltema and Holkema's book-trading and publishing company N.V. Amsterdam (Dutch: Scheltema en Holkema's boekhandel en uitgeversmaatschappij N.V. Amsterdam). The publication of the book was delayed for several reasons, including the outbreak of World War II and the death of Prof. Dr. J. C. Schoute, one of the co-authors.

Developments in botany
At the time that this textbook was published, the field of botany was undergoing the effects of a recent paradigm shift and consequently the way it was approached academically changed. One of these changes was the gradual integration of physical sciences and chemistry in botany. This is exemplified by the increasingly chemistry-oriented works of three generations of Dutch professors, of which two are co-authors of the textbook. Martinus Willem Beijerinck (1851-1931) was a Dutch microbiologist and founder of the School of Microbiology in Delft, where he was also the first microbiology professor at Delft University. His influence on the work is reflected in the fact that the work is dedicated to, among others, him. He was the first person to use the term virus for the Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) and invented enrichment culturing, a selective culture technique. Through this technique and his research on "the heredity and variability of microorganisms", he is said to have contributed to knowledge on the diversity of microbial life. He was a predecessor to Prof. Dr. Gerrit Van Iterson Junior, professor of applied botany, who was one of his students. Under the support of Beijerinck, Van Iterson founded the botanical garden at Delft University. In the Textbook of General Botany, Van Iterson wrote a chapter on the structure of cell walls and other deposits of the protoplasm (Vol. II, Ch.8), a chapter that, within the book, is unique in the extent of the use of physics.

A student of Van Iterson and fellow co-author of the textbook was Albert Jan Kluyver, who was the second professor of microbiology at Delft University. Kluyver was skilled as a chemist and was appointed to the chair of General and Applied Microbiology by Beijerinck, who vacated the position upon his retirement. He was initially thought by some to lack sufficient training to lead this department due to his main field of practice being chemistry. Nevertheless, while in this position, Kluyver used Beijerinck's research on microbial diversity as a foundation to create and apply what is known as "the coherent programme". This chemically based microbial physiology research programme recognized the "chemical unity of all living organisms", referred to as biochemical unity. As a result of this and his efforts in creating a research group that focused on understanding his idea, Kluyver's concept of biochemical unity became internationally recognized in the late 1920s and early 1930s. As a result of this, the seven chapters written by Kluyver in the Textbook of General Botany cover topics related to biochemistry such as oxidative dissimilation and dissimilatory metabolism.

One of the notable inspirations for the textbook was Hugo de Vries (1848-1935), a Dutch botanist and early geneticist who for some time worked alongside Charles Darwin. Known for his work Species and Varieties, De Vries rediscovered Mendelian Inheritance by independently proposing the Law of Segregation, which played a role in modifying Darwin’s Theory of Heredity. One of De Vries’ personal influences on the approaches to botany and cell theory was his emphasis on organelles’ roles in cells (Intracellular pangenesis), which deviated from previous teachings that focused mainly on the role of entire cells in larger beings. Hugo De Vries was also known for his proposition of Mutation Theory, which was later proven to be incorrect but is said to have impacted the scientific community nonetheless by changing the way that scientific questions were practically approached, and the way that resulting theories were proposed. Pertaining to the field of botany, De Vries had an impact on the outlook on the field of botany as a whole: largely due to his studies with plant genetics, it is believed that de Vries inspired a shift from a taxonomic and morphologic perspective, to a physiological one in regards to the function of plants.

Taxonomic and morphological studies prevailed until the second half of the 19th century, but from then on botany was studied more in the physiological sense and its division into sub-fields became more prevalent, which for some part can be attributed to the work of De Vries. He was held in such high regard by the authors, that in addition to being cited numerous times, the book is dedicated to, among others, De Vries. The full dedication, as stated in the preface is: "Dit boek wordt door de schrijvers opgedragen aan de nagedachtenis van hun leermeesters en voorgangers, de Nederlandsche botanici: M.W. Beijerinck, J.W. Moll, Melchior Treub, Hugo de Vries, F.A.F.C Went" (English: This book is written by the authors in memory of their teachers and predecessors, the Dutch botanists: M.W. Beijerinck, J.W. Moll, Melchior Treub, Hugo de Vries, F.A.F.C Went). These botanists were mentors to the writers who contributed to this textbook, in many cases inspiring botany as their field of study and influencing their research. This is reflected especially in the concepts covered by the authors Van Iterson, Kluyver, and Schoute.

Previous collaborations between authors
The International Botanical Congress is a series of meetings (held every 5 to 6 years), comprised of delegates of botanical institutions, societies and academies, and international committees, that passes resolutions on topics such as scientific nomenclature. As a division of the International Union of Biological Sciences, the International Association of Botanical and Mycological Societies (IABMS) is responsible in maintaining the ongoing tradition of this congress, which is held in a different country each time it takes place. In 1935, for instance, after approval by the Dutch government, professors Went and Schoute invited the Sixth International Botanical Congress to take place in the Netherlands. For this congress, the great majority of the authors involved in the writing of the textbook worked together in the publication "Botany in the Netherlands", which establishes a cooperation between them that predates the textbook at hand.

The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (Dutch: Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, or KNAW) is an institute based in Amsterdam that, operating on the values of collaboration, knowledge, and creativity advises the Dutch government on scientific matters and collaborates internationally with other institutes to address greater scientific and cultural issues. KNAW likely played a significant role in uniting the scientists who wrote this textbook, as many of the authors were members of the institute.

Education
Academic botanical knowledge was somewhat scattered around the time this book was written. As stated in the preface to Volume I, Koningsberger felt like it was impossible for him alone to write a coherent, well-rounded textbook. With this, his colleagues sought a place to compile classic botanical knowledge and combine it with the most recent insights, as there was a lack of up-to-date educational material about botany written in the Dutch language. Many of the topics covered in the book, including evolution, had been controversial for some time and therefore were not properly addressed in previous textbooks. This served as evidence of the state of botanical knowledge before this textbook was published: 1) the priorities within the field of botany were undergoing a dramatic shift and 2) while the information was widespread, it was often not presented objectively according to the degree of evidence present for the information, but according to the personal dispositions of authors and contributors.

Koningsberger believed that in regards to education, factual knowledge should be presented in the context of bigger picture systems (how concepts relate to each other) to promote engaged, critical thinking rather than memorization. Compared to many professors and authors of the time, Koningsberger had a modern vision for the future of the institute of education.

Publication during World War II
The textbook was written in the years leading up to and directly after the outbreak of World War II. How exactly this affected the content of the book is unknown, although Koningsberger himself writes about numerous difficulties he faced, especially while editing volume I. He speaks of staff changes that were necessitated by 'the circumstances'. He also admits that some aspects of the book were not published as he envisioned them. At the outbreak of the war, Koningsberger was aware of the fact that he was a candidate hostage in case the occupying German forces would take hostages. At the beginning of the war, several prominent Dutchmen were taken hostage as reprimands for Dutch forces taking German hostages in the Dutch East Indies. This was alarming to Koningsberger, who was very outspoken against the German occupation. He made various preparations for his possible absence from his teaching position. Koningsberger resumed his work after the initial unrest following the German occupation, and volume II was finalized by March 1942. However, volume II was not done at this time, because of the passing of J. C. Schoute in February of that same year. On July 13th 1942, Koningsberger was taken as a 'cautionary hostage', to hold leverage over resistance fighters. Although he was allowed to send and receive post, it was difficult to carry out his task as chief editor, which is why volume I was published roughly a year and a half after volume II.

Volume I
The first volume of the Textbook of General Botany contains the descriptive part of the textbook. It was written by co-authors E. Reinders, J. C. Schoute, and Th. J. Stomps and published in 1943. This volume discusses the cytology, histology and anatomy, and reproduction and external morphology of plants.

Section 1: External Morphology
After introducing the concept of plant morphology and describing and describing plant organs and their development, Schoute discusses and compares the organs of Thallophytes, Bryophytes, and vascular plants (Tracheophytes). The book then focuses on the morphology of vascular plants in more detail, expanding on the characteristics of the stem, root system, leaves, and sporangia, as well as the development and plasticity of these organs. Co-author Schoute also discusses how these connect and interact with each other. Lastly, this chapter describes additional organs such as flowers, seeds, fruits, and strobili.

Section 2: Cytology
In this section, the general characteristics and functions of the cell and its organelles are described, including the cell wall, the cell membrane, plastids, vacuole, and nucleus. The mechanisms of cell wall lignification, mitosis and the involvement of chlorophyll in carbon assimilation inside the chloroplasts are briefly described as well. Furthermore, Stomps describes the fusion of somatic cells, formation of new cells through cell division, development of the egg cell, and the shapes of different types of cells.

Section 3: Histology and Anatomy
The section comprises 2 chapters, the first on histology and the second on anatomy. Characteristics, function, and location of various plant tissues and structures are discussed, including parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, stoma, and secondary growth tissue s (i.e.cork). Additionally, it poses that, due to the role of plasmodesmata, a plant should be seen as a natural unit rather than a collection of cells. The chapter on anatomy introduces the epidermis, cortex, and stele, and that structures like these are found in stems and roots. The stems of dicotyledons and gymnosperms are then examined in detail. This includes the primary growth and development of secondary xylem and phloem, as well as their functions in the stem. The structure of the stem of monocotyledons, the root system, and leaves are discussed as well. Reinders also briefly describes anomalous secondary growth and theories about stele development and evolution.

Section 4: Reproduction
This section concerns plant reproduction, describing sexual and asexual reproduction, the involvement of spores during fertilization, and the formation of spores during meiosis. Stomps explains the process of pollination, touching on aspects of this mechanism such as the connection between chromosomes and sex, the transfer of male cells to female cells, and the role of fruits and seeds in propagation. The apogamy of ferns describing the development of a fern sporophyte is briefly explained and followed by a review of the development of a fern sporophyte from a gametophyte by parthenogenesis.

Volume II
The second volume contains botanical knowledge that can be derived only through experiments rather than direct observations. Whereas the first volume provides a qualitative description of the different parts of cells and their functions, the second volume looks at the physical and chemical mechanisms behind these functions. The second volume is written by editor and author V. J. sberger and co-authors W. H. Arisz, L. G. M. Baas Becking, H. G. Bungenberg de Jong, J. A. Honing, G. van Iterson Jr., A. J. Kluyver, E. C. Wassink and Th. Weevers and is separated into three sections. The first 2 sections focus on plant physiology, with chapters 1-20 discussing general plant physiology and chapters 21-27 discussing physiological processes that are specific to higher plants. The third section (chapters 28 through 32) focuses on the topic of heredity.

Section 1: General part: The physiology of the cell
Chapter 1 acts as an introduction and explains the core principles of biology, such as the distinction between living and non-living entities. Chapter 2 explains how an environment can affect the processes within a cell and ushers in a discussion of fundamental chemical processes. Basic chemical processes that occur within the cytoplasm of a cell are explained as colloid systems. Chapter 8 explains how the structure of cellular components is studied through radiography and focuses almost entirely on experimental techniques. The next chapters discuss osmosis and permeability and their importance in cellular processes. The fundamentals of metabolism and the functions and structure of enzymes, which were poorly understood at the time are discussed in the following chapters, after which various metabolic processes such as respiration, fermentation and photosynthesis are discussed. Lastly, the mechanisms behind cell growth and movement are explained.

Section 2: Specific part: Higher plants
Firstly, it is discussed how vascular plants absorb water and nutrients through their roots, how they transport materials to various parts of the plant and, finally, how water is lost. Chapter 24 explains how essential nutrients that are not found in the soil can be assimilated by the plant. Other challenges that vascular plants face with respect to respiration are explained next. Stepping away from the general perspective, chapter 28 examines heterotrophic plants and the various ways they assimilate nutrients. Section 2 concludes with an explanation of plants' reactions to environmental stimuli.

Section 3: Heredity
Honing explains cross-breeding through the concepts of Mendelian genetics. Next, the underlying principles of Mendelian genetics are explained using the chromosome theory of inheritance. In chapter 30, the concept of random mutations is introduced to explain the appearance of new phenotypes over time. Chapter 31, titled: "That which does not fit in schemes", deals with various topics connected to inheritance. Chapter 32 describes genes and how their position on a chromosome affects their function.

First edition
Editor in chief


 * Prof. Dr. V. J. Koningsberger (Volume II, chapters 1, 19, 20 & 27) was born on the 10th of February, 1895 in Buitenzorg, the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Bogor, Indonesia) and passed away on the 28th of February, 1966 in Bilthoven, the Netherlands. In his early career (1924), Koningsberger was a member of the Sugar Experiment Station in Java, Indonesia, where he eventually became the director of its agriculture department. Victor completed his doctorate research on animal physiology under Friedrich August Ferdinand Christian Went and Prof. Dr. H.J. Jordan, and in 1934 he was nominated professor in plant physiology at the University of Utrecht in succession to his teacher and mentor F.A.F.C. Went. Under Went, Koningsberger served as an assistant at the botanical laboratory from 1918 to 1922. Alongside his profession, Koningsberger was part of different institutes and academies. Through his role as president of the biological council, he prevented the subject of biology from being removed from the final examinations of Dutch high schools. He also served as president of the Royal Tropical Institute in Amsterdam and vice-president of the science division of the Royal Academy of the Netherlands. Today, Koningsberger is known for his contributions to botany, specifically for his role as a professor, and for his role in the Indonesian sugar industry. He is also recognized as the first Dutch professor to openly refute German occupation of the Netherlands in 1940, specifically for opposing the ban on Jewish professors.

Co-authors


 * Prof. Dr. Willem Hendrik Arisz (Volume II, chapters 21-23) was born in Utrecht where he studied biology at the University of Utrecht. To earn his PhD, Arisz did research on phototropism and geotropism, after which he became an assistant professor in Delft. In 1925 he became professor in plant physiology at the University of Groningen.


 * Prof. Dr. Lourens Gerhard Marinus Baas Becking (Volume II, chapter 2) initially studied chemical engineering at the University of Technology in Delft (TU Delft) but decided to switch his field of study to biology at Utrecht University in 1919. Subsequently, in 1921, he obtained his PhD at Stanford University, where he became a biology professor. He is known for his book "Geobiologie of Inleiding tot de Milieukunde".


 * Prof. Dr. Hendrik Gerard Bungenberg de Jong (Volume II, chapters 3-7, 9 &1) was a professor at the University of Leiden for 25 years, where he worked on studies regarding coacervation. Originally a biology student, he changed his field of study to chemistry, obtaining his PhD in 1921. In 1926, he became the chair of the medical chemistry board in Leiden. Through his interdisciplinary science background, de Jong influenced the field of physical chemistry at the interface of chemistry and biology.


 * prof. Dr. J.A. Honing (Volume II, chapters 28-32) was the director at the agricultural college at Wageningen University. He gave a speech titled "Erfelijkheid en Samenleving" (English:Heredity and coexistence) on the college's 16th year of existence.


 * Prof. Dr. Gerrit Van Iterson Jr. (Volume II, chapter 8) was a professor at the University of Technology in Delft, where he also studied at the Department of Chemical Engineering. He studied both chemistry and microbiology. For his PhD thesis research he developed a mathematical theory for leaf growth. Furthermore, he also founded the TU Delft botanical garden and became a member at the Royal Dutch Academy of Botanical Sciences in 1918. He eventually retired in 1948.


 * Prof. Dr. Albert Jan Kluyver (Volume II, chapters 11-17) obtained his degree in chemical engineering at TU Delft in 1910, where he worked as an assistant professor at the university's botany laboratory at which time he also worked on his doctoral thesis on biochemical sugar determinations, published in 1914. After leaving to the Dutch East Indies, he returned to TU Delft in 1922, where he became part of the chair of general and applied microbiology. Upon his investigation of Acetobacter suboxydans, Kluyver found that most metabolic processes can be reduced to the principle of gradual oxidation, which he then applied to his studies on alcoholic fermentation, phosphorylation, and assimilatory processes.


 * Prof. Dr. E. Reinders (Volume I, chapters 6 & 7) was the main editor-in-chief of the second edition of the Textbook of General Botany and also collaborated on a book about the science of botany in the Netherlands, in which he wrote a section titled "The Botanical Laboratory".


 * Prof. Dr. Johannes Cornelis Schoute (Volume I, introduction & chapters 1-3. Final revision by Prof. Dr. B. H. Danser) was a morphologist and professor at the University of Groningen. He is known for various works, including Volume 5 of "Dichotomy and Lateral Branching in the Pteropsida". Before being appointed professor in Groningen, he also worked as a botanist at a station for seed testing at the university of Wageningen and as a professor in Gouda in the early 1900s.


 * Prof. Dr. Theodoor Jan Stomps (Volume I, chapters 4, 5 & 8-1 studied biology at the University of Amsterdam and wrote his thesis on genetic synapsis in Spinacia oreacea L. In 1907, Stomps became the assistant of renowned geneticist Hugo de Vries. He later became a lecturer and professor in systematic botany in succession to his assistant. He was also the director at the Hortus Botanicus in Amsterdam.


 * Dr. E. C. Wassink (Volume II, chapters 11 & 18) was a professor at the plant physiology department at the University of Agriculture in Wageningen from 1947-1974. He is known for various works including "Efficiency of Light Energy Conversion in Plant Growth" and "Chlorophyll Fluorescence and Photosynthesis".


 * Prof. Dr. Theodorus Weevers (Volume II, chapters 24-26) is known for his work "Het Leven der Planten" (English: The Life of Plants). He was also the chairman of the Royal Dutch Botanical Association.

Second edition
(This list does not display all authors, but gives an overview of authors that either added new texts, or played a different role compared to the first edition.)

Editors in chief


 * Prof. Dr. V. J. Koningsberger (Volume II)
 * Prof. Dr. E. Reinders (Volume I)

Co-authors


 * Dr. R. Prakken (Volume I, chapter 6 [entirely new chapter inserted] & chapter 8 [added one paragraph])

Reception
Following the publications of 1942 and 1942, a second pressing was ordered in 1946. This pressing contained numerous edits relating to the order in which subjects are presented. There are no major additions in terms of content. In the preface of the second edition, Reijnders gives a summary of the complaints and comments that the authors received and how the book was improved. The second edition, omitted several topics, like the discussion of briophytes, because they were deemed too detailed for students. The discussion of morphology was especially ill-received by students, who could not understand it. A complete revision and expansion of this section was necessary. Another major shortcoming of the book was its lack of coherence. This was one of the major issues addressed in the second edition.

In the second edition, special attention was also given to a discussion that concerned many professionals in the field at the time. Botany was divided into two fields, "bijzondere plantkunde" (English: special botany) and "algemeene plantkunde" (English: general botany), originally discussed in "Leerboek der Algemeene Plantkunde". This was cited in a speech entitled "Fundamentele Vragen van de Bijzondere Plantkunde en Plantengeografie" (English: Fundamental Questions about Special Botany and Plantgeography), given by Dr. Joseph Lanjouw at the University of Utrecht in 1949. Through this speech, Lanjouw, former student of Went and secretary at the International Union of Biological Sciences, discusses where he thinks the line between special and general botany should be drawn. As made apparent by his speech, the audience comprised other scientists well known in the fields of general botany and genetics. He refers to one of them, saying "ik denk ook dat mijn collega voor de algemeene plantkunde ernstige bezwaren zou maken indien ik datgene van de plantenphysiologie dat zeker niet algemeen is te noemen, voor mijzelf zou gaan opeisen" (English: "I also think that my colleague of general botany would have serious objections to my claiming plant physiology, which definitely does not count as general botany").

Today, this book is part of Maastricht University's Special Collections. These collections, which include approximately 250,000 books, provide a basis that can be used by students and staff across the different faculties as a means for research and teaching activities.