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Refractive surveillance is a type of surveillance, which collects data about one group and adopts that data to monitor and control another group that is not the original source of surveillance. There are a number of technological developments that make refractive surveillance possible from CCTV cameras to smart phone tracking. Data is gathered from these devices and then analyzed to create reports and projections, which are appropriated to influence an external party not originally observed. Refractive surveillance is often utilized by corporations that gather data on their clientele and in turn analyze that data to monitor and alter the practices of workers. However, refractive surveillance can also be performed on an individual level. A person can collect data privately about one source and also draw out data about an external source in the process. There are a number of groups that are especially vulnerable to refractive surveillance practices, which includes low-wage workers and individuals with mental and physical disabilities

Definition
Data for refractive surveillance is gathered through the tracking of a source and appropriating that data to monitor or influence a source that was not originally being tracked. The process of tracking involves the surveillance of an individual or a group of individuals, which generates data that is later analyzed in order to develop files, data depositories, produce strategies for the future, or enforce protocols. Tracking can be performed on the government, corporate or the individual levels.

Refractive surveillance is different from direct surveillance techniques, also called dyadic surveillance. Dyadic surveillance refers to the practice of observing a party and utilizing the information collected to exert control over that observed party. On the other hand, individuals who are targets of refractive surveillance do not have the same ability to advocate for their privacy, and they do not hold the same awareness of the surveillance being performed.

Methods and Functions of Refractive Surveillance
A wide array of technological developments make the process of refractive surveillance possible. Security cameras installed to oversee customers and for loss prevention measures can be utilized to monitor actions of employees such as their behaviours and productivity levels. Loss prevention refers to the company trying to cut losses by monitoring customers in their facilities in order to prevent theft. This footage can later be appropriated to oversee the work of the employees. Another way to gather data in a physical space is by censors. Companies can install censors that monitor movement and heat in order to enhance space layout, but this data can also be utilized in order to track the movement of the employees in the area. Hence, data gathered from cameras and censors placed for safety purposes can be appropriated in other ways to perform employee evaluations and surveillance.

Refractive surveillance can also work through an application (app) on a smartphone. Companies develop apps that gather data from users of the devices, which can later be employed for marketing purposes. For instance, data can be collected on the amount of traffic in a store through using location services on the app. Mobile Location Analytics (MLA) are services, which are utilized by industries in order to trace the location of the shoppers inside their facilities and build reports based on the collected data. MLA can access the Bluetooth function of smartphones to detect the owner of the device in terms of their location in the store, which can generate information on how long someone is standing in line at the checkout counter. When phones search for Wi-Fi networks and connect to free Wi-Fi it also enables companies to detect how many users are in an area. Additionally, companies can access the browser history of the user if the mobile device is connected to the company’s network, which collects further data. Mobile Phone Carriers can likewise have access to the smartphone through the cell towers, which locate the Cell ID. Other companies can utilize Bluetooth beacons, which detect users nearby and gather data in the process. Some companies provide their employees with these Bluetooth beacons in order to classify them in a different category than the clientele. The data gathered from these devices is then appropriated for other means. For example, the flow of customer traffic calculated by MLA services influences the number of employees scheduled to work a shift.

Other applications can access the microphone and camera of the mobile device if the user does not opt out of these services. Likewise, users can have the option of not using the store Wi-Fi or turning off the Bluetooth function on their mobile devices if they wish for their data not to be collected. However, some applications require the use of these services in order to function. For instance, some apps trace the location of the user at all times that the application is running not only while the user is on location. Uber is an application, which traces not only the location of the carrier of the mobile device but also of the employee who is connected to the rider. Companies can utilize this data collected from users of applications to develop regulations and reports that impact their own workers who are not part of the original data set, which is the main goal of refractive surveillance.

Algorithms are also utilized in refractive surveillance practices. Algorithmic rating systems can predict how workers will accomplish their duties in the future through collecting data from an external source. This data can impact managerial decisions to discipline or terminate employees who do not meet the criteria that the system outlines. For instance, Uber riders are asked to rate their experience after using the services of the company, this data from the user is then utilized in order to evaluate the performance of the drivers. The workers are evaluated through external means and their future performance can be predicted based on the data that is gathered through the mobile application. Employees are prompted by the company to reassess the way they interact with their customers in order to obtain a better rating.

Usage
Refractive surveillance can be employed both by corporations for the purpose of monitoring employees and by individuals for their personal use in order to monitor other individuals.

Corporations
Corporations can employ measure such as refractive surveillance to benefit the company and its employees. Data gathered, analyzed, and utilized for creating reports and implementations can help in retaining staff, improving safety, or providing more hours for workers when customers are satisfied, and more traffic is directed to the facilities. Managers can also utilize refractive surveillance in order to monitor the behaviour of employees and increase their control. The creation of schedules that are based on data collected from consumer traffic is a common practice utilized as a loss prevention measure. Employees are monitored to make sure they are punching in the correct number of hours, to avert collogues from clocking in for other employees and to prevent scheduling too many workers for off-peak hours. An automated schedule and surveillance apparatus installed on location is one way for corporations to prevent employees from stealing wages. Other ways corporations utilize the data collected from refractive surveillance is to encourage employees to behave in a way that would increase the company’s profits. This can be observed in motivating workers to provide better customer service that can be measured through key performance indicators. A key performance indicator refers to an analysis that indicates whether a company has effectively reached its set goals such as hitting a sales target.

Some technology is installed to make the work of mangers easier such as devices that measure the depletion rate of hygiene products in corporate restrooms to signal low levels. These tools can also be appropriated to track the traffic levels of the employees and how often they use these products. These technological developments are advocated by companies because they promote eco-friendly behaviour such as to prevent overstocking products. On the other hand, by installing these devices managers can also detect whether employees are complying with the company policies such as taking the allotted number of breaks.

Corporations can track not only in person interactions on location but also online interactions of its customers and other online users. For instance, online newspapers have systems that gather data on the amount of time spent on their website and how readers interact with the article on social media. This data is later appropriated in order to monitor the work of the writers and whether their practices and skills can be developed further in order to generate more traffic to the website.

Individuals
Individuals can be subjects of surveillance not only by parties that display authority or hold power, but also by peers and other individuals anywhere in the world. Lateral surveillance happens when one individual monitors another individual with no power relations between the observer and the observed. Surveillance tools can be utilized on a personal level by anyone. Therefore, instances of refractive surveillance can also be found on the individual level. Data can be gathered through tools such as communication devices (for example smartphones and computers) where one individual can monitor the online behaviour of another and inadvertently the people who that person interacts with.

Individuals can also buy surveillance equipment themselves and install it in places of public access or inside their homes. For instance, nanny cams are a way to track the well-being of a child but also to monitor the behaviour of the babysitter. Similarly, individuals can install cameras in a public space that can capture other individuals who are unaware of the surveillance. For example, cameras are utilized in nursing homes by family and friends who monitor the well-being of the resident staying at the facility. The camera has the ability to capture data about the workers, other patrons, and the visitors of the facility. However, the use of personal cameras in public spaces that capture data about members of those areas can violate privacy laws. If the proper consent is not given by the residents and workers of these facilities, individuals employing the technology can be prosecuted for this practice. Even with these surveillance practices being acknowledged by the staff and patrons of the facility other issues can arise such as the possibility of individuals not feeling fully comfortable of the surveillance practice.

Refractive Surveillance and Vulnerable Populations
There are a number of vulnerable populations who are linked to being subjects of refractive surveillance. Scholars have raised the concern of these populations already being disadvantaged with refractive surveillance practices creating further issues in the lives of these individuals.

Low-wage Workers
Some academic scholars have criticized the practice of refractive surveillance because this phenomenon can be utilized in order to discipline already disadvantaged employees. Another issue raised by scholars is that the purpose of the information collected is not disclosed or is yet unknown until the data is collected and analyzed. It has been argued that workers can feel like criminals when they are constantly monitored by their managers either in a direct or overt manner. Furthermore, researchers have noted that companies utilizing refractive surveillance have placed additional obligations on the employees. For instance, workers of the service industries experience a lack in job security and lost wages due to scheduling conflicts. This form of surveillance has been linked to having an emotional toll on the low-wage workers in the retail industry because of the lack of agency that these employees have in response to the surveillance. Surveillance puts pressure on workers in low-wage positions who often have to deal with a stressful and fast-paced environments. Refractive surveillance is often performed in an overt manner, and employees often do not notice how this phenomenon influences them and their life in the long run.

There are a number of ways that low-wage workers are directly influenced by the practice of refractive surveillance. Tracking the traffic in the store can influence the scheduling possibilities of employees. Algorithms can predict how busy a corporate facility will get, which in turn influences the company’s scheduling practices. Employees’ schedules can vary by week and do not have to be consistent. Companies develop “on-call” policies where workers are asked to keep their schedules open even if they are not scheduled into the system to work. This influences the employees’ ability to plan ahead or obtain another part-time job because they can be called to work at any time. Data is also gathered about customers in order to create personal profiles that describe the individual’s tastes, shopping history, and any other relevant details. Customer service representatives are no longer valued for their personal knowledge and approach because this information is now not exclusive. This can result in employees lacking job security because they can be easily replaced and their personal knowledge about clients is no longer valued. Another way refractive surveillance can disadvantage workers in the customer service industries is through the observation of their behaviour and interactions with customers. Later this data can be appropriated to create policies and guidelines on how workers should act on the job, which signals further control from the employer.

Disabled Populations
Refractive surveillance systems can also be utilized by the government. This type of surveillance aids in the function of different services and programs making them more practical and convenient. However, a number of these programs directly deal with vulnerable populations that have no option of opting out. For instance, research has been conducted on the impact of refractive surveillance on Medicaid recipients in the United States. Individuals are provided with an Electronic Visit Verification (EVV) device in order to track workers, such as personal health care attendants who come to patients’ homes. EVV devices installed in the patient’s home are utilized in order to confirm the amount of labor that patients are billed for. The EVV device records the service that was provided by the Medicaid staff, information about the patient, the date, time and location of the interaction. EVV technology, which has a built-in microphone and GPS can potentially act as a surveillance device that workers and patients are concerned about because the device that is meant to track the work of the Medicaid workers can potentially also gather data about the patients. The new EVV apparatus logs in the location of the users when they request a Medicaid worker, which is data that is collected and analyzed by staff who approve or disapprove a patient’s eligibility to apply for medical support at a later date. Therefore, eligibility for the program can be revoked based on data that is collected about an external source.

A nursing home is another place that has surveillance apparatus installed, which is in direct contact with vulnerable populations. Inside these facilities cameras are installed by the service providers or by individuals who want to monitor the daily activities of family and relatives staying at the nursing home. Data that is collected can directly target the workers of the facilities to evaluate their performance and indirectly the patrons of the home who are also being surveilled at the same time. The residents can have a limited mindfulness of cameras and their impact on their life. Scholars linked the issue of obtaining consent from these vulnerable populations as problematic by stating that often times it will be the representatives of these residents who make the decision to allow surveillance without being able to consult the individual being observed directly.

Workers Response to Refractive Surveillance
Workers acknowledge that surveillance in their place of work is necessary for security measures. Older surveillance measures such as CCTV cameras are acknowledged by employees as a necessary part of their work environment. However, companies where workers feel that certain surveillance measures invade their privacy can see higher turnover rates. Some scholars have cited that women display stronger negative feelings towards surveillance in the work place than men.

An issue that has been linked to refractive surveillance is the lack of awareness that the employees have in terms of validating or disproving data that has been collected. Mistakes can be made during the data collection process, and the subjects of refractive surveillance do not have agency to appeal for these errors to be resolved. Therefore, workers can lose their autonomy in the process of refractive surveillance. Furthermore, technologies that are used in refractive surveillance are criticized as not being impartial ways of analyzing information because they inherently imbed the designer’s viewpoints and historic biases of the system.

However, it has also been reported by scholars that employees can utilize the system to their own benefit. Workers can develop counter-strategies in order to better their working conditions. For instance, Uber drivers can utilize the tracking feature and ranking of riders to their advantage by predicting whether a customer can yield a better rating or be charged a surged price for their ride. Some scholars have cited that data gathered for refractive surveillance purposes can ultimately aid workers. Employees can be provided with traffic data in order to be prepared in advance for potentially stressful situations and evaluation practices can be taught to internal staff in order to create fair and transparent evaluation systems.