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*  Live in Knoxville, Tennessee *  Student at Pellissippi Community College *  I am a PAC teacher at a school.

*  Atlantic Slave Trade

Fact: After being captured and held in the factories, slaves entered the infamous Middle Passage. Meltzer's research puts this phase of the slave trade's overall mortality at 12.5%. Around 2.2 million Africans died during these voyages, where they were packed into tight, unsanitary spaces on ships for months at a time.

MLA Citation: Duquette, Nicolas J. “Revealing the Relationship Between Ship Crowding and Slave Mortality.” The Journal of Economic History, vol. 74, no. 2, 2014, pp. 535–552.

DOI: 10.1017/S0022050714000357

Quote: The longer a vessel was at sea, the greater risk of death from starvation, drowning, or infectious disease (Galenson 1986, chap. 2). Much of the literature argues that the slave mortality was affected by overcrowding and voyage duration in a nonlinear manner-more crowded voyages may have exhausted food supplies sooner, experiencing rising mortality late in the voyage (Cohn and Jensen 1982; Galenson 1986), or more crowded voyages may have spent longer embarking slaves at the African coast, increasing the risk of a disease outbreak in the early part of the voyage (Steckel and Jensen 1986; Haines, McDonald, and Shlomowitz 2001).

Phase Three

Feinstein, Rachel. “Intersectionality and the Role of White Women: An Analysis of Divorce Petitions from Slavery.” Journal of Historical Sociology, vol. 30, no. 3, 2017. Pp. 545-560. Wiley Online Library, https://bit.ly/3knNBVi

This scholarly article focuses on the substantial roles that white women played regarding enslaved black women, and more specifically, sexual brutality upon them. The Wives’ unique perspective offers us insight into what truly happened in their homes. Witnessing the violent actions their husbands had towards the enslaved women, several appealed for divorce. These findings show us a whole new role women took on during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Sensbach, Jon. “Forum on Katharine Gerbner’s Christian Slavery: Conversion and Race in the Protestant Atlantic World.”  Church History, vol. 88, no. 3, 2019. Pp. 751-753. Research  Library, https://bit.ly/3sCYRjN

This scholarly article describes the connections between the rise in plantation systems increasing the high need for forced labor and the deceitful depth of involvement Christianity played. This discovery also sheds light on why enslaved Africans and their descendants welcomed the religion that was all for slavery. Protestant conversions of enslaved Africans concerning race, religion, and slavery are connected too.

Phase Four

Fact 1 Paragraph: Divorce petitions submitted by white women against their husbands offer insight into the sexual violence committed by white men against enslaved black women. Because the rape of enslaved black women was not considered illegal during slavery, enslaved black women did not have access to the court system or legal protection against rape, and therefore legal documentation that directly involves white men accused of raping or sexually violating enslaved black women is extremely rare (Gabbidon & Greene, 2009; Higginbotham & Kopytoff, 1989; Sommerville 2004). Instead, petitions for divorce from white women accusing their white husbands of sexual relationships with black women who were enslaved provide formal, legal documentation regarding this topic. The language used by white women to describe the enslaved black women and their husbands' behavior allows for an analysis of the important intersectional power dynamics between white men, white women, and enslaved black women.

Fact 1 Summary: White women solicited a divorce from their white husbands after witnessing the sexual violence and rape their husbands enacted on enslaved black women.

Fact 2 Paragraph: Protestant missionaries in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, Gerbner argues, helped to justify slavery on religious grounds that fortified emerging ideas of race. As numerous scholars have noted, the slave trade accelerated as colonial authorities contrived legal codes prescribing enslavement for Africans based on racial difference. Religion was at the heart of many of those codes. If Africans were baptized, was it still legal to enslave fellow Christians, or did they become free, as allowed under English common law? Given this legal ambiguity, many Africans sought out Christianity hoping to gain freedom; as a result, planters passed new laws forbidding manumission upon baptism. To gain access to enslaved Africans that suspicious planters might otherwise deny, missionaries abetted this scheme. While championing the idea that Africans had souls worthy of salvation, ministers contended that bodily freedom was rooted in “white” racial identity not religion. Thus, the decades between about 1670 and 1740 were foundational for the legal and religious construction of racial slavery. Missionaries were the foot soldiers who built the ideological bridge between the militant Protestantism of English, Dutch, and Danish imperialism in the Atlantic world, which Gerbner calls “Protestant supremacy” and racial identity, or White Supremacy.

Fact 2 Summary: English common law stated after baptisms, you were considered a free person, so slave owners wanted to pass a new law forbidding the baptism of slaves.

Article Section:

Forms of slavery varied both in Africa and in the New World. In general, slavery in Africa was not heritable—that is, the children of slaves were free—while in the Americas, and English common law stated after baptisms, you were considered a free person, so slave owners wanted to pass a new law forbidding the baptism of slaves. Children of slave mothers were considered born into slavery. This was connected to another distinction: slavery in West Africa was not reserved for racial or religious minorities, as it was in European colonies, although the case was otherwise in places such as Somalia, where Bantus were taken as slaves for the ethnic Somalis.

Article Section:

The savage nature of the trade led to the destruction of individuals and cultures, including the sanctity of marriage. White women solicited a divorce from their white husbands after witnessing the sexual violence and rape their husbands enacted on enslaved black women. Historian Ana Lucia Araujo has noted that the process of enslavement did not end with arrival on Western Hemisphere shores; the different paths taken by the individuals and groups who were victims of the Atlantic slave trade were influenced by different factors—including the disembarking region, the ability to be sold on the market, the kind of work performed, gender, age, religion, and language.