User:Lprd027/Muenster (draft)

The history of the German city of Münster in Westphalia, which covers more than 1200 years since it was founded, can be traced back to prehistoric settlements, With a resident Bishop, and because of the important role it played during the Hanseatic era in Westphalia (alongside Soest, Dortmund, Osnabrück and Hamm), Münster was and is the political, cultural and economic hub of the Münsterland. While the Anabaptists ruled the city in the first half of the 16th century, they destroyed the entire city archive. This makes it difficult to construct a reliable historical narrative prior to this point in time as it relies on deeds and documents that were archived outside the city.

Pre- and Early History
The city of Münster is not considered a significant site of prehistorical settlement in the Westphalian Basin. Although some traces (flint tools and arrowheads, for example) of the hunters and gatherers of the Stone Age remain, no major discoveries have been made there. Flint daggers, bronze grave goods and bronze brooches from the Bronze Age have been found within the current city limits. There is evidence of continuous settlement from the Bronze Age to the pre-Roman Iron Age, but not within the inner city. The excavation of a hoard of sword-shaped iron bars in the district of Geist provides evidence of intensive metalworking. This find originates from the period of the Hallstatt or La Tene cultures.

Roman era
Traces of Germanic settlement from the early Roman era have been found on the Horsteberg, the hill on the river Aa upon which the cathedral would later be built. Later evidence originates from the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Imported goods suggest close contact with Roman provinces on the left bank of the Rhine. The settlements were abandoned around 300 CE at the latest. Archeologists classify the finds as belonging to the Rhine-Weser Germanic group of hoards.

According to the Roman historians Tacitus and Strabo, the earliest settlers were probably Bructeri. The Bructeri were certainly one of the Germanic tribes that successfully fought against Roman expansion. In any case, one of the eagle standards captured in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 CE was recovered during the campaign of retribution conducted by Germanicus against the Bructeri in 15 CE.

However, the Bructeri never occupied the early settlement because – as Tacitus reported with a measure of schadenfreude – military conflicts with neighbouring Germanic tribes almost lead to their extermination. Presumably the victorious Chamavi settled the hill on the river Aa.

In the 3rd century, the Bructeri and Chamavi banded together with other Germanic tribes to found the confederation of the Franks.

Saxon Settlement
Since around the 6th century, a small Saxon settlement called Mimigernaford has existed on the current site of Münster cathedral square. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the Saxons, who originated from the Holstein region, expanded across the Elbe-Weser Triangle in the direction of England as well as southwards. The origin of the tribal name westfalai, as the western Saxons were designated in Frankish annals, and the name they probably used themselves, is unclear. One interpretation links the word stem fal with fahl, flachsfarben (OHG: fair, flaxen-haired), which refer to hair colour. The origins of the name Mimigernaford are also open to several possible interpretations. Recent research indicates that the settlement was named after the Mimigers, followers of the clan chieftain Mimiger who established a stronghold by the ford over the river Aa. This name was used up until the 10th century, albeit mostly in its modified form Mimigardeford.

In 793 Charlemagne sent out as missionary the Frisian Liudger (later canonized) to convert the Saxons with whom he had been battling, offering as headquarters his recently demolished Frankish stronghold of Mimigernaford ("ford over the Aa river"), at the crossroads of the road from  Cologne and the road to Frisia. Liudger was a product of Utrecht and the York school of Ethelbert, which produced many of the clerics who served in Charlemagne's chancelry. He built his church and cloister on the right bank of the Aa, on the height called the Horsteberg: it was the monastery ("monasterium") from which Münster derives its name. In 805 Liudger travelled to Rome to be ordained the first bishop of Münster, and soon founded a school (The Gymnasium Paulinum is believed to have been founded as the monastery school in 797). The combination of ford and crossroad, marketplace, episcopal administration center, library and school, established Münster as an important center.

Early/High Middle Ages
The year 793 is recognised as the year that Münster was founded: in that year Charlemagne sent the Frisian Liudger on a mission to establish a monastery ("monasterium") on the Horsteberg by the rural settlement of Mimigernaford. On 30 March 805 a bishopric was established in Münster (still then known as Mimigernaford) and Hildebold, the Archbishop of Cologne, appointed Liudger its first bishop. Furthermore, the settlement was elevated to civitas (city) status – a bishop could only reside in a city – and construction began on the cathedral. In fact, full municipal rights were not formally conferred on the city until several hundred years later. By ca. 900 a sizeable settlement had grown around the cathedral and a city wall was built around it, even though it was yet to acquire formal city status. Then ministeriales (civil servants) and skilled craftsmen began to settle inside the walled city. A steady increase in economic activity resulted in the establishment of marketplaces in front of the city gates, such as the Rye Market and the Old Fish Market. Alongside agriculture, the city developed into an important mercantile centre.



The parish continued to grow, which lead to the founding ca. 1040 of the Überwasserkirche (Church of Our Lady) to the west of the walled city. Likewise, early in the 11th century local merchants instigated the construction of the Church of St. Lamberti, the first market church in the city. In the year 1068, the name "Monasterium" was attributed to the city for the first time. The economy continued to grow until citizens divided by the Investiture Controversy – the conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor and the Pope over the right to appoint bishops – drove the bishop out of the city. As a consequence, Lothar von Supplinburg occupied the city on 2 February 1121 and burnt it to the ground. After the city was rebuilt and the existing markets were extended (e.g. by the Prinzipalmarkt), Münster (or "Munstre", as it was also known colloquially) acquired formal city status ca. 1170, and Hermann II von Katzenelnbogen was made its first sovereign Prince-Bishop on 4 May 1173 – the same day that the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa approved the succession of Simon von Tecklenburg to the office of vogt (Lord Protector) over the Bishopric of Münster from his predecessor Ludwig I von Wippra. After a large fire devastated the city for a second time in 1197, merchants and craftsmen were banned from settling inside the city walls. They settled instead within the marketplaces to the east, thereby laying the foundation for the emergence of Münster (the name of the city substantiated by sources from the year 1206) as one of the most important mercantile centres in Westphalia. While the city was being rebuilt, the decision was made to build an outer wall around the marketplaces to protect the traders residing outside the inner city from attacks.

The outer wall was 8-10 meters high, over 4 km long and surrounded by a moat. Six towers were subsequently built to secure the wall and its ten gates. In order to further strengthen the fortifications, a secondary wall and moat were added in the 14th century. The Promenade in Münster (a ring road) roughly marks the path of the outer city walls. At that time, Münster was the largest city in Westphalia in terms of surface area (104 hectares), followed by Soest (102 ha), Dortmund (81 ha), Paderborn (66 ha) and Minden (50 ha). It was not until the second half of the 13th century, after the New Town was established, that Osnabrück (102 ha) was comparable in size to Münster. Alongside the aforementioned cities, Münster became one of the most important Hanseatic cities in Westphalia.

The Hanseatic League


Towards the middle of the 13th century, the most powerful cities united in leagues in an effort to counteract the anarchy prevailing in the Holy Roman Empire and the powerlessness of the Emperor. Their objectives were to secure free access to markets as well as provide mutual protection against aggressors. So, on 22 May 1246 Münster joined forces with the cities of Osnabrück, Minden, Herford und Coesfeld to form the Ladbergen League. Likewise, in 1253 the cities of Dortmund, Soest und Lippe joined together to form the Werner League. These leagues were the forerunners of the Hanseatic League in Westphalia and their formation provided an enduring boost to the economy. Münster developed into one of the most important mercantile centres in Westphalia whereby its traders and merchants became increasingly influential. After the citizenry secured control over trade, industry and excises early in the 13th century, the city established its first military contingent in 1270. Following an agreement with Prince-Bishop Everhard von Diest in 1278, the city was able to acquire even more privileges, including representation in the Landtag (state parliament) for the first time. In 1309, the city acquired legislative privileges after the ruling Prince-Bishop Konrad I von Berg forfeited his right to inherit the estates of ordinary citizens.

Several large buildings in Münster attest to the economic and political prosperity of this period, such as the bourgeois Church of St. Lamberti built in 1375. Another is the late 13th century/early 14th century gothic City Hall; it was built in direct line-of-sight of the cathedral to demonstrate to the bishop the economic and judicial independence of the city. Another important church that arose in Münster in this century is the Church of Our Lady, which was built in 1340 to the west of the inner city after both of its predecessors had been completely destroyed. As it is situated "across the water" – on the other side of the river Aa, this church is also known as the Überwasserkirche.

The first recorded mention of Münster in connection with the Hanseatic League is in 1368, in a privilegium issued by Albrecht von Mecklenburg, the King of Sweden. In fact, the city had almost certainly been associated with the Hansa long before this. However, Münster left the Hansa in 1454 as a consequence of the Diocesan Feud of 1450-1458, an eclessiastical feud between the city and the church over the appointment of a new bishop. (See below). The feud ended when the guilds won the right to stand for election to the city council, whereupon the city rejoined the Hanseatic League. In 1494 Münster became a Vorort (regional centre) of the Hanseatic League and it played an increasingly important role in the leadership of the Westphalian branch of the Hansa after the city of Cologne left the organisation. When Münster celebrated its 1200th anniversary in 1993, commemorative plaques made from cobblestones taken from all of the Hanseatic cities, each mounted within a brass ring imprinted with the name and coat of arms of its source, were embedded in the pavement of Salzstraße – Münsters oldest commercial thoroughfare – in recognition of its importance to the Hanseatic League.

The Patricians
A unique feature of Münster society was a privileged elite (Erbmänner) who came to be known as the Patrizier. These patrician families were, at least partly, probably mostly, descendants of ministeriales in the service of the bishop. In contrast to other citizens, they claimed the exclusive, hereditary right to stand for election to civil office; ordinary citizens were ineligible. Patrician families provided Münster with its mayor, aldermen and magistrates until the constitution was amended after the Diocesan Feud ended in 1458. Probably the best-known patrician family was the Droste-Hülshoff family, among others were the Bischopinck, Bock, Schenckinck, von der Tinnen, Kerckerinck and von der Wieck families. What is more, every patrician family has a street in Münster named after it.

The Diocesan Feud 1450-1457
As mentioned above, the Münster Diocesan Feud (German: Münsterische Stiftsfehde) was a conflict that arose after the death of Heinrich II, the Bishop of Münster. In the election of his successor, two candidates emerged to contend for the vacancy in the Prince-Bishopric of Münster. On one side stood Walram von Moers, who had been nominated by his brother Dietrich II von Moers, the Archbishop of Cologne, and who had received the endorsement of the cathedral chapter in Hausdülmen on 15 July. In the opposing camp were the Counts of Hoya, the City of Münster, most of the clergy, and in time, some of the cathedral chapter as well. After Count Johann von Hoya took over the administration of the cathedral chapter, his brother Erich I von Hoya was supposed to become the next Bishop of Münster. Counting in his favour was an agreement negotiated by Count Everwin von Bentheim-Steinfurt on 13 October 1450. In addition, Count Johann von Hoya held the most important estates in his grasp. In the end, Pope Nicholas V was called upon to resolve the dispute. However, the Pope chose to ignore the previous agreement, appointing instead Walram von Moers as bishop.

The situation intensified yet further in the middle of 1451 after Johann von Hoya signed the Treaty of Hausdülmen with Duke Johann I von Kleve and his allies, whereafter they declared war on Walram von Moers and his brother, the Archbishop of Cologne, on 9 July 1451. On the same day, the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III issued an edict declaring his support for Walram's appointment as bishop. However, the City of Münster ignored Richard's edict which caused the conflict to deepen in the following months. As a result, Münster along with Hoya's followers were excommunicated and an interdict was issued against them. In spite of this, the city of Vreden, one of Walram's last strongholds, fell into the hands of Johann von Hoya.

The tide began to turn in 1453 and Walram von Moers gradually gained the upper hand. As a consequence, Johann von Hoya felt compelled to act against the citizenry of Münster and its city council. His actions were sharply criticised in the 17 October 1454 sitting of the Hanseatic parliament and Münster was excluded from the League (pending) reinstatement of the old city charter. Walram and Dietrich von Moers also made military advances after they won a battle against their opponents on 18 Septmber 1454. Nevertheless, neither party was able to win a decisive victory over the other. Even after the Pope's nominee Walrum von Moers died on 3 October 1456, two candidates still competed for the office of bishop; the second contender alongside Erich von Hoya was Konrad von Diepholze. Yet Pope Calixtus III overlooked them both, appointing instead Johann von Simmern-Zweibrücken. The Treaty of Kranenburg signed on 23 October 1457 brought the Diocesan Feud to an official end, whereby the City of Münster granted Erich von Hoya a lifelong pension as compensation and agreed to recognise the new bishop.

Reformation
The citizens of Münster made repeated attempts to liberate themselves from diocesan rule in the hope of becoming an Imperial City, especially after the military conflicts, poverty and political turmoil that typified the early years of the 16th century, near the end of the Middle Ages. Many people believed that the End of the World was nigh, as were the Day of Judgement and the prophesized advent of the New Jerusalem, and sought a path to redemption through devotion and prayer. When Martin Luther published his 95 Theses in 1517 in protest against the widespread practice of selling indulgences, he initiated the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire. By the end of the year 1520, this movement had reached the city of Münster.

In 1529, the preacher and chaplain Bernd Rothmann began to include elements of evangelical doctrine in his sermons in the Church of St. Maurice. On his return from a grand tour of Wittenberg, Marburg and Straßburg, the anti-Reformation Bishop of Münster Friedrich III von Wied banned Rothmann from preaching, for the first time on 29 August 1531, and again on 5 October and 17 December of that year. In the end, the Prince-Bishop of Münster expelled him from the territory. As a result, Rothmann wrote a number of letters to the bishop and city council urging them to publicly disprove his teachings, and he continued to preach, in spite of the bans. Armed with a printed summary of Rothmann's beliefs, the citizens implored the leaders of Münster's guilds to promote religious equality in the city council. This reference to Rothmann's teachings forced its admission into the Krameramtshaus – the meeting place and storehouse of the Kramer guild.



Eventually, Bishop Friedrich III von Wied grew tired of the stresses of governing and resigned. After his successor Bishop Erich von Braunschweig-Grubenhagen died after only a month and a half in office, Franz von Waldeck became the new Bishop of Münster. Although he himself was quite open-minded in regard to the Reformation, the cathedral chapter forced him into opposing and suppressing the new faith. So, in the summer of 1532, after the city council conceded to its citizens demands that protestant ministers be made available in all parish churches, thereby going over to the lutheran confession, he imposed economic sanctions on the city. However, when the sanctions proved to be ineffective, he agreed in the "Treaty of Dülmen" of 14 February 1533 to grant freedom of religion to Münster.

In the meantime, however, Rothmann had turned away from Luther's theology toward that of Melchior Hofmann, who was regarded as the leader of the Anabaptist movement. Central to Hofmann's beliefs was the repudiation of infant baptism and the Last Supper, which lead to strife in the city hall on 7-8 August 1533. When Hermann Staprade, a minister in the Church of St. Lambertus, refused to perform infant baptisms in September, the council closed the churches, which lead to yet more unrest in November. As a result, the city council issued a religious ordnance that commanded all citizens to live according to evangelical interpretations of God's Law. Any critique of infant baptism or the Last Supper was punishable by law. The ordnance was reprinted and distributed once more in December 1533. Its title page quoted the letters "V.D.M.I.E.", "Verbum Domini Manet In Eternum" – the protestant battle cry, "The Word of the Lord Endures Forever". This ordnance underlined the city's commitment to the Lutheran faith in opposition to catholic religious authority. Yet the Anabaptist movement could not be halted, and it began to spread through Münster early in the year 1534 or thereabouts.

Under Anabaptist rule


The dramatic events of what came to be known as the Münster Rebellion began in January of 1534 after an influx of people from the Netherlands who practised adult baptism and who believed that Münster was the New Jerusalem of prophecy. The leader of this movement was the former baker Jan Matthys. The by now mainly Lutheran population were receptive to this doctrine. Bishop Franz von Waldeck, having almost been expelled from the city, called upon the citizens to hand over the "re-baptists". They refused, taking the side of the preachers. On 23 January, von Waldeck ordered the arrest of the founder of the Anabaptist movement in Münster, Bernd Rothmann, and began preparations to besiege the city. Although the Anabaptists mounted a counter-attack on 15 February 1534, he was able to fend them off at Schöneflieth Castle in Greven.



After their candidates secured a majority in the council elections of 23 February 1534, the Anabaptists seized control of the city. This lead to civil disorder, including the burning of books, outbreaks of iconoclasm (the destruction of religious images) and the destruction of the first astronomical clock in the cathedral. In addition, money was abolished and polygamy was introduced in July. Opponents of the Anabaptists had until 27 February to leave the city or be subjected to forced (adult) baptism. When the Day of Judgement prophesized by Jan Matthys for Easter Sunday, 5 April 1534, failed to eventuate, he attempted a breakout to end the siege. He was killed in the ensuing battle, and Jan van Leyden took his place. When subsequent attacks upon them failed, van Leyden interpreted this stroke of fortune as a sign from God that Münster was destined to be the New Jerusalem. Accordingly, he got Johann Dusentschuer, a goldsmith from Warendorf, to crown him king of the so-called "Kingdom of Zion", whereupon Münster became a "royal city".

According to legend, the situation inside the beleaguered city deteriorated to the point that whitewash scraped off the church walls was diluted with water and distributed as a milk substitute. The city descended into chaos, its inhabitants starving. Although Münster was regarded as impregnable thanks to it massive fortifications, and despite spirited resistance, the city eventually fell to its attackers on 24 June 1535 after an act of treason: with help from two mercenaries, the carpenter Heinrich Gresbeck had opened the "Kreuztor" gate in the city wall. The result was a blood-bath, and the Anabaptists within were massacred. On 22 January 1536, the three leaders of the Anabaptist movement – Jan van Leyden, his governor Bernd Krechting, and alderman Bernd Knipperdolling – were tortured and hanged in public in front of the City Hall. To set an example, their bodies were placed in three iron (baptismal) baskets which were hung on the side of the Church of St. Lambertus; the originals hang there to this day. In the literature, these are often incorrectly described as cages. This is primarily because articles on the Anabaptist movement produced by foreign writers since the end of 18th century have tended to use derogatory language in their accounts of the Münster Rebellion; flawed translations of latin manuscripts are also a factor.

Aftermath of the Münster Rebellion, the rise of civil society, and the Counter-Reformation
After the Münster Rebellion ended, Bishop Franz von Waldeck suppressed lutheran church services and revoked all civic rights, including electoral rights, control of the judiciary, the military and the city's defences, legislative rights, and the right to levy taxes. Henceforth, the bishop himself appointed all members of the city council. However, that situation changed in 1541 when he needed the support of the city. In return, the bishop reinstated certain rights and privileges. After that, electoral rights and the right to form guilds were eventually reinstated in 1553. As a consequence, the citizenry regained control of both of the most powerful groups in the city; the city council now functioned like a government with the ability to exert political influence over their prince-bishop and sovereign. The guilds, for their part, got a say in the affairs of council, including taxation policy and the defence of the city. In addition, the guilds contributed to the defence of the city by re-establishing the Große Schützenbrüderschaft (shooting clubs) in 1557, who helped to train men for the citizen militia.

During the Münster Rebellion, the population declined from 10-12,000 to 3-4,000, but it took less than 60 years to regain its former numbers. At the same time, the city became more prosperous during this golden age towards the end of the 16th century. The many churches, monasteries and other religious institutions played an important role in this development because the affluent clergy increased the demand for food, textiles and luxury goods. Administrative and judicial reforms carried out by Bishop Johann II von Hoya between 1571 and 1574 resulted in the expansion of public services, which also contributed to the economic boom. Münster's cityscape changed to reflect its new-found wealth: gold and silver coinage was minted, many poorhouses and monasteries as well as municipal and private buildings were built. In order to secure its wealth, the city strengthened it's already massive fortifications; this proved its worth in 1618 when the Thirty Years' War broke out in Europe. The self-confidence of the city is evident in this (unsuccessful) court case: in 1616, the mayor Bernhard II von Droste zu Hülshoff started proceedings in the Imperial Chamber Court against the prince-bishop and the sovereign.

While the secular world moved forward, little changed in the ecclesiastical world for some time. Neither the bishop nor the authorities, still mindful of the horrors of the Münster Rebellion, wanted to provoke another conflict between the Catholics and the Protestants. After the Council of Trent, Dean Gottfried von Raesfeld began a process of reform in Münster in 1566, supported by church inspections from 1571 by Everwin Droste, the bishop's judicial vicar. However, it was not until the Archbishop of Cologne, Ernst von Bayern was elected Bishop of Münster in 1585 that the catholic faith regained the upper hand. Against the wishes of the city council, he established a Jesuit order in Münster, and even managed to take over the Gymnasium Paulinum, a monastic school with a rich tradition. The Jesuits in the 16th century were primarily engaged in catechesis (religious instruction) in the parishes, where they preached in support of the so-called Counter-Reformation of the Catholic church, as well as the preparation and promotion of doctrines revised in accordance with the Council of Trent. Besides preaching in churches, the Jesuits also taught in schools and universities, such as the Jesuit Church of St. Peter and the Jesuit College in Münster. Certainly, their take-over of the Paulinum was an advantage for the supporters of the Counter-Reformation. In particular, the 1150 school children in Münster in 1592 – a tenth of the population – raised the prospect that the city might again become purely catholic within a single generation. The establishment between 1612 and 1624 of monasteries for the Capuchin friars, the nuns of the Order of St. Clare, and the Observant Francisan monks also helped to further catholicise the city. The last remaining protestants were finally driven out of Münster under orders from the city council in 1628 during the episcopate of Prince-Bishop Ferdinand von Bayern.

Peace of Westphalia


Münster played an important role in the Thirty Years' War. Although the city was occupied by Hessian soldiers in 1633 and again in 1634, its massive fortifications, having been continuously extended near the end of the previous century, protected it from conquest, plunder and destruction by enemy troops. In addition, Münster and the Münsterland remained mere bystanders in the early years of the war, especially after the Battle of Stadtlohn on 6 August 1623, in which the protestant general Duke Christian von Braunschweig suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Imperial forces under the command of the Count of Tilly near the town of Stadtlohn.

This probably explains why the Peace of Westphalia – a series of peace treaties negotiated in Münster and Osnabrück that ended the longest war in Europe – was signed here. The Lutheran delegation met in Osnabrück, which lay within Protestant Sweden's sphere of influence, while the Catholic delegation met in Münster. The proposal that Münster be used as the venue for the diplomatic congress came from the Swedes in 1641. To guarantee the neutrality of the city, the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III drafted an interim agreement in Hamburg on 25 December 1641. This was officially presented to the city and its citizens for their approval. They concurred, and the Imperial privy councillor Johann Krane released Münster from its obligations to the empire and the sovereign on 27 May 1643, thereby declaring it a neutral city for the duration of the congress.

The negotiations alternated between the quarters of the respective delegations. On 20 January 1648, the Dutch and Spanish delegations concluded a peace treaty in the Dutch Quarter, in the present-day Haus der Niederlande. On 15 May 1648, the treaty was invested in a festive ceremony. For the occasion, the Spanish delegate Count Peñaranda had reserved the council chamber on the ground floor of the Historical City Hall of Münster, whereafter it came to be known as the Friedenssaal (Peace Hall). The Peace of Münster ended the Eighty Years' War, in which the Dutch fought for independence from the Spanish Empire, and is regarded as the founding moment of the United Netherlands.

The peace negotiations in Münster and Osnabrück between the Emperor, the Imperial Estates, and the Swedish and French delegations dragged on until autumn. Peace treaties were finally signed in Münster on 24 October 1648, and the instruments of ratification were exchanged on 18 February 1649. This concluded the Peace of Westphalia, which finally brought the Thirty Years' War to an end.

The historical interior of the Friedenssaal can still be admired today because it was removed into storage prior to the bombing which completely destroyed the City Hall and the Prinzipalmarkt during World War II. Only the fireplace is not original.

City vs. Prince-Bishop
The city of Münster reached the zenith of its powers at the time of the Peace of Westphalia, and did everything to maintain and extend its independence: on 11 September 1647, the city council petitioned the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III to ratify its rights and privileges. They included, amongst others, the right to issue coinage and the right of occupation. Through the conferral of what amounted to sovereign rights, Münster attained a status equivalent to a Free Imperial City. Conflict with the sovereign Prince-Bishop was inevitable. By 1650, Christoph Bernhard von Galen – his deeds later earned him the nickname Bommen-Berend (Bombing Bernhard) – had also come to this realisation.

The first skirmish between the city and the Prince-Bishop took place in 1654. In the episcopal elections of 1650, von Galen tried to have his opponent Bernhard von Mallinckrodt arrested. This failed because the city council would not support him. In return, the city launched a surprise attack against von Galen, which also failed. The end result was the Treaty of Schöneflieth, which was named after Schöneflieth Castle on the southern bank of the Ems river in Greven, where the treaty was signed. The treaty was essentially a compromise that gave von Galen the right to station 450 infantrymen and 100 horsemen inside the city. The troops, however, had to swear allegiance to the city to guarantee their own safety.

With tensions between the city and the Prince-Bishop running high, the city sought help from potential allies. When Syndicus Nikolaus Drachter returned from negotiations in the Netherlands on 9 August 1657, von Galen had him arrested. The city denied him entry and demanded Drachter's immediate release. In response, the Prince-Bishop lay siege to the city (for the first time) on 20 August 1657, subjecting it to artillery bombardment. His demands for a surrender on 6 September were rejected. When rumours reached von Galen that an army from the Netherlands was rushing to Münster's side, he abandoned the siege. The Treaty of Geister of 21 October 1657 marked the end of the siege under terms that amounted to a defeat for von Galen.

The winter of 1659/60 brought a change of fortune for Münster: the Holy Roman Emperor had denied the city's request for the right of occupation and also forbidden it from seeking foreign allies. To exploit this development, Prince-Bishop Christoph Bernhard von Galen lay siege to the city (for the second time) on 20 July 1660. Lacking outside support, the city soon began to run out of money and food supplies. Not even emergency measures – melting down silverware, borrowing money from the people, stamping Notgeld (siege money) – could alleviate the dire situation. The conflict came to a head during the Christmas of 1660 when von Galen dammed the nearby river Aa, which caused a flood within the city. In view of the hopeless situation and with no prospects of outside assistance, the city council surrendered the city to the Prince-Bishop on 26 March 1661. The council was made to sign a declaration that effectively ended Münster's autonomy: the city had to sever its links to the Netherlands and undertake never to establish contact with foreign powers again. In addition, the city had to share its tax revenues with the Prince-Bishop as well as pay him the sum of 45,000 Reichstaler.

In order to demonstrate his power over the city, the victorious Prince-Bishop had the western side of the city wall demolished and built a citadel in its place. In another deliberate act of provocation, he constructed an episcopal guardroom inside the City Hall and erected a palisade fence around the building. The burghers lost most of their civil rights, and their electoral rights too; henceforth all members of the city council were personally appointed by the Prince-Bishop. Even the guilds were deprived of their rights. It was not until the episcopate of Prince-Bishop Ferdinand von Fürstenberg between 1678 and 1683 that Münster's civil rights were partially reinstated.

Seven Years' War and its aftermath


During the Seven Years' War, Münster sided with Empress Maria Theresa, Duchess of Austria, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, which made the city a battleground. As a consequence, the city was repeatedly besieged and captured by the allied forces of the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg/Kingdom of Great Britain and Prussia, as well the Empress' allies in the Kingdom of France. The city suffered the most damage when it was besieged by Hanoverian forces in 1759, during which the Martiniviertel was completely destroyed by heavy bombardment. The Pulverturm (gunpowder magazine) in the Citadel also exploded during an assault under the Hanoverian commander Christian von Zastrow. After the war ended in 1764, the city was so badly damaged that Franz Freiherr von Fürstenberg, the Minister for the Prince-Bishopric of Münster under Prince-Bishop Maximilian Friedrich von Königsegg-Rothenfels, ordered the demolition of the city's fortifications. Münster would henceforth be an open city thereby avoiding further destruction and devastation.

In 1767, at the request of the people of Münster, the Prince-Bishop approved the construction of an episcopal residential palace on the site of the demolished citadel. His successors – Johann Conrad Schlaun (until his death in 1773) and Wilhelm Ferdinand Lipper – continued the work until the palace was finally completed in 1787. The former also converted the path followed by the city wall, which had been demolished in 1770, into the Münster Promenade. In addition, Schlaun was responsible for the decision in 1773 to establish a regional university in Münster. Lectures began soon after its completion on 16 April 1780. A significant contributor to the development of what eventually became the Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität was Franz Freiherr von Fürstenberg, the vicar general and local representative of Maximilian Friedrich von Königsegg-Rothenfels, the Archbishop of Cologne and Bishop of Münster. He also helped to develop the tax, health and justice systems.

Another of Wilhelm Ferdinand Lipper's projects was the Komödienhaus, Münster's first theatre. Financed by the burghers of Münster, the theatre opened in 1775 on the Roggenmarkt (Rye Market). The renowned actor Albert Lortzing performed at the theatre in the 1830s, after whom later building extensions were named. After the demolition of the fortifications in 1890 and the destruction of the interior of the Prince-Bishops' Palace during [[World War II], all that remains of von Lipper's work in Münster are the so-called Torhäuser am Neutor, two gatehouses in early classical style located at the northern end of Hindenburgplatz.

The French Revolution at the end of the 18th century also affected the Prince-Bishopric of Münster. Thousands of French emigrants sought refuge in the city, among them many Catholic clergymen. In 1794, there were over one thousand refugees in the city of Münster alone. On 5 April 1795, Revolutionary France and Prussia concluded the Peace of Basel, which declared northern Germany neutral territory. This meant that the French Revolutionary Wars had little direct impact on Münster to begin with. That soon changed, however, at the beginning of the 19th century.

Under Prussian rule
On 23 May 1802, Prussia and France reached an agreement on how Prussia would be compensated for the territories west of the Rhine river that it lost in the French Revolutionary Wars. Under the terms of the treaty, Prussia would acquire territories in Westphalia: the Prince-Bishopric of Paderborn, the Abbeys of Essen, Werden and Herford, and the eastern half of the Diocese of Münster, including its capital city, Münster. However, the treaty needed the approval of the Perpetual Diet of Regensburg and the Holy Roman Emperor.

But the Prussians did not wait for the so-called Imperial Recess to be finalised. On 3 August 1802, one year after the death of Maximilian Franz von Österreich, the last Prince-Bishop of Münster, and the 32nd birthday of King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia, General Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher marched into Münster with a regiment of hussars and three batallions of fusiliers. The occupation was only legitimised after the Imperial Recess was ratified on 25 February 1803. The Prince-Bishopric of Münster was dissolved, and the eastern part (including Münster) became the patrimonial Principality of Münster within Prussia. Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein assumed responsibility for secularisation – the process of building institutions according to the Prussian model. These early efforts, however, were rather short-lived.

In 1806, French troops under the command of Napoléon Bonaparte entered Münster. On 14 November 1808, the city was initially assigned to the Département of Ems of the Grand Duchy of Berg. On 27 April 1811, the city was ceded from Berg to France. At this point, Münster became the capital of the newly created Département of Lippe. In addition, the city acquired a Mairie which administered the city and its neighbouring communities.

During the wars of liberation, Prussian and Russian troops drove the French out of Münster in 1813. After the Congress of Vienna of 1814/15, Münster was eventually ceded to the Kingdom of Prussia. The former Maire was transformed into the "Mayoralty of Münster". Although Münster became the seat of the District of Münster, the city itself was designated a "District-free City", which did not belong to the district. On 1 April 1816, Münster became the provincial capital of the newly established Province of Westphalia, the seat of the Administrative District of Münster, and the headquarters of the VII Army Corps of the German Imperial Army.

Münster entered the railway era on 25 May 1848 when the Münster-Hamm Railway Company (Münster-Hammer Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft, MHE) opened the Münster–Hamm railway line, which connected to the Cologne-Minden trunk line. Eight years later (1856), the Münster–Rheine railway line, which was connected to the Hanoverian Western Railway, entered service, and in 1872 the Cologne-Minden Railway Company (Cöln-Mindener Eisenbahngesellschaft, CME) opened a line from Wanne-Eickel to Hamburg via Münster. On 1 October 1890, Münster Central Railway Station was opened; prior to this, the two railway companies operated separate railway stations. The building stood until World War II, when it was completed destroyed by aerial bombing.

The year 1872 marked the beginning of the Kulturkampf ("culture struggle"), a Prussian initiative to significantly reduce the influence of the Catholic church over the state. It was applied with particular severity in Münster, which lead to insurrection among the people of Münster and the arrest in 1875 of Bishop Johannes Bernhard Brinkmann. He was later able to flee to the Netherlands whence he returned from exile in 1884 to a triumphal welcome from the people of Münster.

The first incorporation of rural communities into the city of Münster took place on 1 January 1875 when parts of the surrounding districts of Lamberti, St. Mauritz and Überwasser merged with Münster. As a result, the city grew in area from 1.92 km² to 10.84 km² and its population increased to 8,963. Another significant achievement that year was the opening of the first all-weather zoo in Münster, known at the time as the "Münster Zoological Gardens". It was located within an area known as "Himmelreich" near the former "Neuwerk" (a remnant of the city's fortifications) south-west of the city until its closure in 1973 and relocation to beside lake Aasee in 1974. The zoo's first director and chairman of the board was Hermann Landois. His residence, the "Tuckesburg", has survived and is open to visitors on the site of the former zoo. Moreover, its plans were used in the Aasee development in the first half of the 20th century.

During the industrialisation era, the population of Münster increased significantly; by 1885, the population of Münster had reached 44,060, comprising 36,751 Catholics, 6,784 Lutherans and 513 Jews. Shortly thereafter, in the year 1887, the city – formerly a "District-free City" – became an Independent City. However, Münster remained the seat of the District of Münster, whose boundaries were to change repeatedly in the following decades. The rapidly increasing population also put pressure on the three existing inner-city cemeteries: the Kirchhof vor dem Neuthore, the Kirchhof vor dem Hörsterthore and the Kirchhof vor dem Aegidiithore. After many years of planning, the "Central Cemetery" – also know as the "Central Churchyard" at the time – was opened in 1887.

In order to provide a venue for theatrical performances, the "Rombergschen Hof" on Neubrückenstraße was extensively renovated to replace the dilapidated, 115 year-old Comedy House on the Rye Market, which was demolished in 1890. The new venue was named the Lortzing Theatre in recognition of the renowned performer Albert Lortzing. The official opening took place on 30 November 1895. However, as the theatre was completely destroyed during World War II, and the decision was made against faithful restoration, what little remained of the original structure was integrated into the reconstruction of the theatre between 1952 and 1956. It was the first theatre in Germany to be rebuilt after the war.

In 1899, Münster got its own port on the new Dortmund-Ems Canal. Its close proximity to the railway station facilitated efficient transportation, which attracted industrial companies to the area. Another milestone that year was the opening of the city's first sewage treatment plant. From then on, waste water was spread onto Rieselfelder (sewage treatment fields) using irrigation instead of being discharged into the river Aa. The inner-city also experienced a revolutionary development: following the establishment in 1901 of the Stadtwerke Münster (to run Münster's public utilities), three new tram lines were opened to replace horse-drawn carriages. They initially ran at 6 minute intervals with a maximum speed of 15 km/hr on an 8 km long rail network. The electricity required to power Münster's tramway network was generated by a new power station that opened the same year.

In 1900, the Schiller Gymnasium was inaugurated. It was the first Protestant, state-run grammar school for boys in Münster. Shortly thereafter, in 1902, Kaiser Wilhelm II refounded the University of Münster. After he visited Münster on 22 August, it was renamed the Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität (WWU) in his honour. Women were allowed to enroll there for the first time in 1908.

In the year 1903, the city of Münster extended its boundaries to include the remaining independent communities of Lamberti and Überwasser, as well as additional parts of St. Mauritz, thereby increasing its surface area to 65.9 km². In 1915 the population grew to over 100,000 inhabitants – four times its 1870 population – making Münster a metropolis. The expansions of 1903 meant that the city had outgrown the capabilities of its volunteer fire brigades – a full-time, professional fire service had become a necessity. As a result, the Münster Fire Brigade was established on 1 May 1905.

World War I and the Weimar Republic
At the outbreak of World War I, only the servicemen of Münster were involved in the conflict. Nevertheless, in the early war years, there were euphoric displays in support of the war in Münster, as in most of the German Empire. It was hardly surprising then, that the people gave generously in support of fund-raising for the war effort. On the occasion of "U-Boat Day" on 3 June 1917, over 30,000 Reichsmark were collected in donations, even though both money and food were short after three years of warfare. Furthermore, the 100,000 citizens of Münster had to support over 90,000 prisoners of war interned in prison camps near the city in 1918, which made the situation even worse.

The end of World War I sparked a revolution in Germany, which reached Münster on the night of 8-9 November 1918. After the local military commander consulted Berlin on how to proceed, he entered into negotiations with representatives from the troops, the SPD and the Christian trade unions. The outcome was the formation of an interim "Executive Committee" with authority over both the armed forces and the civilian administration. Close to midnight, Emmerich Düren, committee member and chairman of the local SPD branch, announced from Münster's Hindenburgplatz that a republic would be proclaimed in Berlin later that day. On 13 November 1918, a Workers' and Soldiers' Council for Westphalia was established in Münster. However, General von Watter dismissed it on 6 February 1919 after the National Assembly was inaugurated and the council refused to accept changes to the regulations governing its status in the army. It was also General von Watter and his staff who, from their base in Münster the following year, coordinated regular soldiers from the Reichswehr and paramilitary units of the Freikorps in the Ruhr Valley to defeat the Ruhr Red Army comprising left-wing workers, soldiers and communists.

Civil aviation began in Münster in 1920 when the first aerodrome was opened in Loddenheide. The first scheduled flights were to Bremen using aircraft from various companies including Lloyd Luftverkehr, Junkers-Luft-Verkehrs A.G, and later on from the newly founded Deutsche Luft Hanse A. G. Despite subsidies from the Reichspostministerium (RPM, Reich Postal Ministry) and regular investments from the city council, the service was only moderately successful. After ongoing operational difficulties and numerous changes to the timetables, Münster's first commercial aerodrome closed down in 1930 after only ten years of service, and all flights were cancelled. In 1935, construction began on a new, larger, dual-purpose airfield in Handorf, primarily intended for military purposes but also with facilities for passenger services. After its completion in 1937, the Münster-Handorf Airfield only operated commercial flights until the outbreak of World War II, however. After that, the city of Münster had to wait until 1972 to regain (part-)ownership of an aerodrome when the Münster Osnabrück Airport opened.

In 1924, the Westdeutsche Funkstunde AG (WEFAG) was founded in Münster – the forerunner to the Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR). It began with the transmission of a radio programme entitled Westdeutsche Funkstunde. Two years later, however, the broadcasting company relocated to Cologne, although Münster remained a transmission relay station.

The year 1926 saw the opening of the University Hospital in Münster. The Halle Münsterland, an exhibition and events centre located close to the harbour and the central railway station, also opened that year. In 1928, work began on the construction of an artifical lake, the Aasee, as part of a job-creation programme. Plans for the project had already been completed in 1868 by the former zoo director, Professor Hermann Landois.

Nazi era
At the beginning of the rise of National Socialism in Germany, the people of catholic-oriented Münster were mostly sceptical. So the local branch of the Nazi Party (abbreviated NSDAP) was initially quite small. From 1931, the party promoted itself through numerous events, including 16 large political rallies. With the help of visiting speakers such as Hermann Göring and Prince August Wilhelm of Prussia, the party gradually gained in popularity. In particular, a rally held on 25 August 1931 featuring the aforementioned dignitaries marked a turning point. As a result, the Nazis were able to improve their standing in the eyes of the public; formerly derided as "braune Marxisten" (brown-shirted Marxists), they were now regarded as a "decent" party.

After the rallies arranged by the local branch of the NSDAP, an intensive propaganda campaign followed in 1932 which included a visit from almost all of the leadership of the party. Among them were Joseph Goebbels, Robert Ley, Gregor Strasser and Wilhelm Frick as well as the leader of the National Socialist movement, Adolf Hitler. For Hitler, it was his second and last visit to Münster; on a previous occasion, after his release from prison, Hitler had gone to Münster in 1926 to find the former commander of the Freikorps, Franz Pfeffer von Salomon, in order to offer him the leadership of the SA. During the campaign rally, Hitler addressed a crowd numbering ca. 10,000 on the subject of the upcoming presidential election to be held on 8 April 1932. Around 7,000 of the attendees heard his speech from inside the Halle Münsterland, while the remaining 3,000 listened from outside the hall. It is worth noting that the city council had denied the NSDAP permission to hold rallies in the hall the previous year. However, the party's increasing political profile and influence on the police made a refusal in 1932 unthinkable. The prolonged propaganda campaign showed its worth early in 1933: in the German federal elections of 1933, the NSDAP improved its share of the ballot from 16,246 (24.3 %) to 26,490 (36.1 %) votes, while lagging behind the German Centre Party with 41.6 % of the vote. A few days later, in local government elections of 12 March 1933, the outcome was reversed: the NSDAP was now the strongest party with 40.2 % of the vote, ahead of the Centre Party with 39.7 %. By comparison, in the March 5 election, the NSDAP received 43.9 % of the overall vote in the German Empire.

During the Nazi era, Münster was the headquarters of the administrative district (German: Gau) of Westphalia-North. After Hitler seized power in 1933, the Gau were no longer just organisational units of the Nazi party, they also served as administrative districts of the state. Gauleiter Alfred Meyer was appointed the senior president of Westphalia, and Münster became the headquarters of the 66th SA Brigade, the 13th SA Regiment, the 17th SS Division, the 19th SS Infantry Division, Unit 9 of the Hitler Youth (German: Hitler-Jugend), District 9 of the League of German Girls (German: Bund Deutscher Mädel), as well as other party agencies.

Furthermore, Münster became the command headquarters of the Order Police (German: Ordnungspolizei) of Military District VI, the largest and most populous police district in the German Empire at that time. It included present-day North Rhine-Westphalia, greater Osnabrück, and (from 1940) eastern parts of Belgium. The Order Police were created by decree on 26 June 1936. The uniformed police force were subsequently absorbed into it. The 16 separate state police forces were then amalgamated into a single, national police force. In October 1944, the command headquarters of Military District VI of the Order Police were transferred from Münster to Düsseldorf-Kaiserswerth.

Between 1933 and 1944, the population of Münster grew from 123,000 to 145,000. During this period, 5,818 new dwellings were built, although this was insufficient to alleviate the housing shortage. The state contributed 30% towards the cost of building these houses; prior to 1933, the figure was 60%.

The unemployment problem was initially covered up by the celebrations and, later on, addressed via job-creation schemes. To this end, the city of Münster paid out ca. 9.7 million Reichsmark between 1933 and 1937. This initiative was so successful – only 616 were still unemployed in 1937 – that near full employment had been achieved.

The commander of the Order Police from April 1940 was Dr. Heinrich Lankenau. He resided in the "Villa ten Hompel" with up to 40 of his staff and had 200,000 men under his command. The war expanded the role of the Order Police; they became responsible for the deployment of guards to worker rehabilitation camps and, later on, to labour camps and prisoner-of-war camps as well. They also organised guards and escorts to accompany the trains transporting prisoners to concentration camps and extermination camps in the east. From Münster, the Order Police assembled 22 police battalions who were given the task of organising the murder of the Jewish communities of eastern Europe. Thousands of police officers were sent out from Münster to the Nazi-occupied territories of Europe. Former upholders of law and order had become perpetrators of a cruel extermination policy.

Among the victims of this policy was the Jewish community in Münster. Early in the morning of 10 November 1938, during what came to be known as Kristallnacht, the synagogue was set on fire and destroyed. Apart from the synagogue, buildings belonging to Jews were also attacked, as were the people themselves. The Holocaust in Münster and the Münsterland actually began early in December 1941. On the night of 13 December 1941, 403 Jewish citizens – 105 of them from Münster – were rounded up in the "Gertrudenhof" inn in Warendorfer Straße and taken to the railway station. They were packed into locked goods wagons, and the train left Münster just before 10:00 pm destined for the Jewish Ghetto in Riga. Three more deportations were to follow: another to Riga on 27 January 1942, one to the Warsaw Ghetto on 31 March, and one to the Theresienstadt concentration camp on 31 July. Of the 708 members of the Jewish community in 1933, 299 were deported to concentration camps, only 24 of whom survived. Overall, 280 Jewish citizens fled Münster and emigrated to other countries, seven committed suicide, and four survived by hiding underground in Münster. Excluding the 77 people who died of natural causes during this period, 42 people remain whose fate is unclear.

In July and August of 1941, Clemens August Graf von Galen, the Bishop of Münster, preached his famous sermons denouncing the Nazi's euthanasia programme (officially named Aktion T4), for which he was prosecuted on 28 July 1941. His opposition to the Third Reich earnt him the title "The Lion of Münster". After the war ended, he was made cardinal by Pope Pius XII on 18 February 1946. He died in Münster on 22 March 1946 from complications arising from a burst appendix. On 9 October 2005, von Galen was beatified by the Portuguese Cardinal José Saraiva Martins in Rome.

Another aspect of the history of Münster during the Nazi era was the employment of slave labour in the city and its hinterland.

Allied Bombing of Münster
During World War II, Münster was targeted as part of the Area Bombing Directive. As a result, allied bombing destroyed almost 91 % of the city centre including a large number of important historical buildings, such as Münster Cathedral, the Palace, and nearly all of the buildings on Prinzipalmarkt. Overall, approximately 63 % of the city was destroyed. It is important to note, however, that the most important gabled buildings on Prinzipalmarkt have been restored, albeit somewhat simplified. This is primarily because the citizens of Münster elected to rebuild the old city rather than replace it with new, modern buildings. Thus, the historic city centre remains evident today.

The first bombing raid on 16 May 1940 destroyed an industrial warehouse. Another 23 raids followed up until December. In the nights of 6-10 July 1941, Münster was among the first German cities to be subjected to allied carpet bombing. A large night raid on 12 June 1943 was followed by a dawn raid on 10 October 1943 which destroyed or severely damaged much of the inner city. Periodic bombing followed until August of 1944 in order to bring about the unconditional surrender of Germany; the morale of the civilian population had to be broken. Between September 1944 and March 1945, 50 bombing raids were launched against Münster. The last and most destructive raid on 25 March 1945 laid waste to what little remained of the shattered city centre: in just a quarter hour between 10:06 am and 10:22 am, 112 heavy bombers released around 1,800 high-explosive and 150,000 incendiary bombs. One of the bomber pilots later reported, "We dropped our load, just like in training, we rattled off 441 tons of bombs in 16 minutes – you can rub 'Münster' off the map…". On the evening of Easter Monday, 2 April 1945, troops from the US 17th Airborne Division and a British armoured division took Münster without meeting any resistance. At this point only 17 families were still living inside the Promenade, the ring road that encircles Münster.

Up to this point, air-raid sirens had sounded in Münster 1,128 times and there had been 102 bombing raids. In all, 32,000 high-explosive bombs, 642,000 incendiary bombs and 8,100 phosphorus bombs were dropped on the city. Over 1,600 people lost their lives directly as a result of the bombing. The relatively low number of casualties in comparison to the intensity of the bombing can be explained by the fact that, by the end of war, when the heaviest bombing took place, most of the population had already abandoned the city. Out of 33,737 homes in the urban area, only 1,050 remained undamaged; over 60 % were severely damaged or completely destroyed and thereby rendered unliveable. The infrastructure in the city collapsed completely: the water pipelines had been mostly destroyed as was 85 % of the electricity grid. The gas supply had failed completely. The streets were impassable and the public transport system no longer functioned. In addition, 24 schools had been destroyed along with most of the hospitals; out of almost 7,000 hospital beds, only ca. 400 remained usable. Overall, ca. 2.5 million tons of rubble and debris had accumulated in Münster that had to be cleared up.

Post-war Era
In February 1946, the city of Münster experienced catastrophic flooding, especially in the low-lying areas near the river Aa. This was caused by day-long rainfall and exacerbated by the mountains of rubble remaining from the war that prevented the rainwater from draining away. Such was the flooding in many places that only boats could get through.

On 23 August 1946, the British Military Government gazetted Decree No. 46, which united the northern part of the Rhine Province with the Province of Westphalia – both former Prussian provinces – to form the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. The city of Düsseldorf, headquarters of the British High Commissioner for the Rhineland and Westphalia, was designated the new state capital. Although Münster was no longer the provincial capital, it remained the seat of the regional government and the headquarters of the newly-created administrative district of Münster.

In the Summer of 1949, plans for the reconstruction of the city centre were drawn up based on guidelines developed by Münster's former chief architect, Heinrich Bartmann. These plans were implemented in the 1950s, whereby the historic cityscape was mostly restored, including the façades on Prinzipalmarkt and the layout of the streets. As previously mentioned, this is largely due to the citizens of Münster, who opposed modern buildings in favour of faithful restoration of their medieval city. The reconstruction of Münster's historic City Hall, which was also restored, was completed on 30 October 1958. Among other initiatives, a "City Hall Lottery" was organised to help fund the building project.

The 1950s marked a change in the city's transport policy. The first trolley bus line came into service on 1 October 1949, replacing a tram line that was shut down shortly thereafter. Tram services operated in Münster for over 50 years, although there were interruptions from time to time: in 1922 because of hyperinflation, and again in World War II because of severe damage from bombing; the last tram drove through Münster on 25 November 1954. The trolley bus era only lasted until 25 May 1968, however, when they were superseded by omnibuses.

Personal transportation was also affected by changes in transport policy. Increasing prosperity resulted in traffic congestion in the city centre, especially in the main shopping streets: Prinzipalmarkt, Ludgeristraße and Salzstraße. To begin with, traffic restrictions were imposed on the latter two. Similar measures were also considered for Prinzipalmarkt in 1959, but no action was taken until 1974. In 1969, five years prior to this, Ludgeristraße had already been converted to a pedestrian zone, and Salzstraße followed in 1977. Nevertheless, Prinzipalmarkt has remained a restricted traffic zone, only accessible to motor vehicles under certain, exceptional conditions.

While some streets were closed to traffic, new transport routes were opened elsewhere. In 1965, Münster's first motorway link connected the city to Federal Autobahn 1 (A1) at the Kamener Kreuz interchange. A direct connection to Bremen has existed since 1968. This section of the A 1 is also known as the Hansalinie. A link to Federal Autobahn 43 (A43) was opened in 1981 to divert traffic away from a busy section of Federal Highway 51 (B51) between Münster and Bochum. Alongside improvements to the road transport, air transport services were also improved; the regional governments of Münster and Tecklenburg, together with the cities of Osnabrück and Greven, opened Münster Osnabrück Airport on 27 May 1972. It operated as a regional airport until 1968 when it became an international airport.

On 29 April 1972, the first demonstration in West Germany in support of gay rights took place in Münster. In the following years, Münster remained – alongside West Berlin – an important centre for the gay and lesbian rights movement. In 1979 and 1988, Münster hosted the "Lesbian Spring Meeting" (German: Lesben-Frühlings-Treffen, LFT), formerly known as the "Lesbian Whitsun Meeting" (German: Lesben-Pfingst-Treffen).

As a consequence of local government reform in 1975, the region of Münster was dissolved on 1 January of that year in accordance with the Münster/Hamm Act. In spite of opposition, some of its former districts were immediately incorporated into the city of Münster: Sankt Mauritz, Handorf, Hiltrup, Amelsbüren, Albachten, Nienberge, Roxel, Angelmodde and Wolbeck. As a result, the population of Münster increased to 57,431 overnight while the city increased in area by 228.4 km² to 302.79 km² – roughly triple its former size.

In May 1987, Pope John Paul II visited Münster, the first pope to do so. He made a speech on Hindenburgplatz in front of the Bishop's Palace, another on Cathedral Square, and he also prayed at the tomb of Cardinal Clemens August Graf von Galen. The pope spent a night in the Roman Catholic Seminary, whereby its head vacated his apartment for the benefit of John Paul. Inside Münster Cathedral, a bronze plate set into the floor in front of von Galen's tomb commemorates the pope's visit.

On 18 June 1990, preparatory meetings for the so-called Two Plus Four Agreement took place in the historic City Hall. In these talks, which paved the way for reunification of Germany, the Foreign Minister of the Federal Republic of Germany, Hans-Dietrich Genscher, met his Soviet counterpart, Eduard Shevardnadze, among others. Genscher wanted a venue that would, in his words, "evoke a historically moving, forward-looking symbolism". He chose Münster – the place where the Peace of Westphalia was signed in 1648 granting sovereign rights to German princes and the imperial estates – so that he, too, could conclude agreements with foreign powers there. In one widely published photograph, Genscher and Schewardnadze are shown drinking out of the Golden Cockerel – Münster's symbolic peace cup.

In the lord mayoral elections of 1994, the SPD candidate Marion Tüns successfully defeated her male opponents. For the first time in the history of Münster, almost exactly 1200 years after its founding, a woman occupied the city's highest office. However, she only served for one legislative term as her tenure ended in 1999.

On 13 December 1999, the Villa ten Hompel was reopened to the public. This historically important building housed the Order Police during the Nazi Era, and the Reparations Department between 1953 and 1968, which was responsible for compensating victims of political, racial or religious discrimination. Since then, it has been a memorial to National Socialism which seeks to examine this period in German history through various exhibitions and events. To facilitate independent research on this topic, its library contains an historical archive as well as collections of primary and secondary literature.

On 12 May 2002, probably the most popular event in Münster's history took place: the first stage of the prestigious Giro d’Italia bicycle race, which finished in Münster and drew ca. 200,000 people into the city. The cyclists made three and a half laps through the historic city centre, including some cobblestoned streets – a total distance of 18 km.

On 25 November 2005, a "historic" snowstorm heralded the onset of winter in Münster and the surrounding Münsterland. On that day, almost 32 cm of snow fell – the highest snowfall since meteorological recording began in 1888 – exceeding the previous record of 30 cm set in 1925. In contrast to the surrounding districts, Münster itself only experienced partial power outages of short duration. However, the quantity of snow and ice caused widespread disruption to transport networks. Railway services ground to a halt, forcing large numbers of travellers to overnight in hotels or the air-raid shelter under the central railway station. Local public transport services were also affected, especially regional buses, although city buses continued to run until 10:00 pm. In the days that followed, the city gradually returned to normal, with only occasional problems.

A good year later, on the evening of 18 January 2007 and the following night, the cyclonic storm Kyrill caused widespread damage over northern Germany. Damage to power lines resulted in recurring power failures in the outlying districts of Münster. Many of the main thoroughfares, such as Hindenburgplatz or Weseler Straße, were blocked by fallen trees making them impassable to traffic. As a consequence, city buses were suspended until midnight. Likewise, railway services had to be suspended until late in the afternoon as the result of damage to overhead electric cables on all railway lines into Münster. As in 2005, the Fire Department opened up the air-raid shelter under the Central Railway Station to stranded travellers and it put on full alert both of its full-time fire brigades plus all 20 volunteer brigades. Together with the Federal Agency for Technical Relief, it responded to 940 emergency calls, while the police handled 323 calls for assistance. In all, more than 1,000 trees fell victim to the storm in the metropolitan area, amounting to damage reckoned in the millions. The area around the Bishop's Palace was especially badly affected while ca. 40 trees on Hindenburgplatz and ca. 50 trees in the botanical gardens were either damaged or uprooted by high winds during the storm.

On 25 May 2009, the Federal Government declared Münster a "Place of Cultural Diversity".

At the end of July 2014, the Münster region was hit by wildest storm in recent years. On 28-29 July, one storm front after another traversed the area. Such was the quantity of rain that fell in Münster that it was categorised a once-in-a-century event. One of the local weather stations recorded 292 l/m² rainfall within a seven hour period; normal rainfall for the month of July is around 69 l/m² on average. Many streets and cellars were flooded, one person even drowned in a flooded cellar. The city administration estimated damage to municipal buildings and infrastructure valued at 15-20 million Euros.

History of municipal self-government
Münster is known to have been governed by a municipal council after it received its charter in the 12th century. The council consisted of twelve collegial Schöffen (lay magistrates) and aldermen (councillors). Thus its chairman was the Schöffenmeister, from the 14th century he was known as the Bürgermeister, equivalent to mayor. From the 15th century, council elections took place on the first Monday of Lent, from 1542 on the Tuesday preceding January 17th. The council had 24 members from 1654, 20 members from 1670, and 14 members from 1682. In the course of history, council elections were cancelled on several occasions, especially during the Anabaptist era.

After the Bishopric of Münster was abolished in 1802, council elections initially continued under Prussian rule, but they were replaced by an permanent, appointed Council of Magistrates in 1805. After that, the city was governed by a town clerk, two mayors and a treasurer.

Under Napoleonic rule, the French introduced the Napoleonic Code in 1809, whereby the city was governed by a Maire (Mayor) and three deputies. After the Vienna Congress, Münster reverted to Prussian rule in 1815, whereafter the German mayoral title Bürgermeister was reinstated, finally to become Oberbürgermeister (Lord Mayor) after Prussian bureaucratic reforms were introduced in 1836. The Oberbürgermeister was the chairman of the Council of Magistrates, which still included the deputies and city councillors.

During the Nazi era, the Oberbürgermeister was replaced by an NSDAP official, Albert Anton Hillebrand. He remained in office until 1945, when the city was occupied by allied forces. At the end of World War II, the military government in the British Occupation Zone dismissed Hillebrand and appointed Major H. S. Jackson in his place pending the establishment of a new administration. He directed the establishment of the 317th Military Government Detachment in Münster, a military government modelled on German and Prussian administrations respectively. The first Oberbürgermeister after the war was Fritz Carl Peus, appointed 15 April 1945, albeit only temporarily; in the middle of June he was succeeded by Dr. Karl Zuhorn plus a 12 to 14-member council of advisors.

In 1946, a new municipal code modelled on the British system of local government was introduced. This established a democratically elected "City Council" whose members were designated "City Councillors". The council then chose a leader from amongst its members – the Oberbürgermeister (Lord Mayor) – who became council chairman and city ambassador on a  voluntary basis. From 1946 on the council elected a full-time City Administrator as well. This dual-leadership model was abandoned in 1997. Since then, there has only been a full-time Oberbürgermeister who fulfils the functions of council chairman, city administrator and city ambassador. He was directly elected for the first time in 1999.

Weblinks

 * Architectural models: Münster in miniature.
 * The Münster Anabaptist oath.
 * The Münster Anabaptist oath.
 * The Münster Anabaptist oath.