User:Lstaji/Medical harm

Medical harm, also known as iatrogenic illness, is any negative psychological or physical consequence caused by a medical diagnoses or treatment. The Institute for Healthcare Improvement (IHI) defines medical harm as the “[u]nintended physical injury resulting from or contributed to by medical care (including the absence of indicated medical treatment), that requires additional monitoring, treatment or hospitalization, or that results in death. Such injury is considered harm whether or not it is considered preventable, whether or not it resulted from a medical error, and whether or not it occurred within a hospital.” With this definition, IHI estimates that “15 million instances of medical harm occur each year” in the United States. The term medical harm does not imply intent or negligence nor indicate the severity of the damage.

While some progress has been made in recent decades in determining the best ways to reduce incidents of medical harm, some advocates, including Dr. Barbara Starfield and Dr. Lucian Leape, believe that additional measures are necessary to reduce preventable harm. Proposed measures include more widespread systems change in hospitals and other healthcare facilities; financial incentives or disincentives; and creating a national regulatory body with mandated incident reporting.

History
Medical harm was first used after a Harvard Medical study in 1991 concluded that patients incurred a substantial amount of injury from medical management, and the injuries were a result of substandard care. A 1999 report by the Institute of Medicine, “To Err Is Human,” further defined the scope of the problem and outlined comprehensive recommendations for reducing harm.

In the United States

 * 10% of acute hospital admissions resulted in the incidence of an adverse event.
 * In 1999, it was estimated that 98,000 people die in hospitals each year as a result of medical errors, making it the tenth leading cause of death.
 * In 2000, it was estimated 225,000 deaths from iatrogenic causes, making it the third leading cause of death.
 * Twenty to 30 percent of patients in the United States receive care that is contraindicated.
 * Adults 65 years and older are three times more like than younger adults and 60% more likely than middle-aged adults to experience post-operative respiratory failure following elective surgery even after adjusting for co-morbidities.
 * Few studies have been done to determine medical harm in the clinical or outpatient setting.

In Canada

 * 7.5 % of hospital admissions resulted in the incidence of an adverse event.
 * In 2003, 197 deaths resulted from adverse care events, 22 from adverse drug events.
 * In 2003, 5.2 million or 24% of Canadians reported they or a family member had experienced a preventable adverse event due to medical care, 52% of these reports stated the event had a serious consequence.

In United Kingdom

 * 10.3 % of acute hospital admissions resulted in the incidence of an adverse event.
 * In 2002, 413 deaths resulted from adverse care events, 36 from adverse drug events.

In New Zealand

 * 12.3 % of acute hospital admissions result in the incidence of an adverse event.
 * Adverse events in in-hospital healthcare ranks number 11 in the 20 top risk factors that account for 75% of the deaths annually; ahead of air pollution, alcohol and drugs, violence and traffic road injuries; equal to a third of the size of tobacco-related deaths.

In a hospital setting

 * nosocomial infections – an infection unrelated to the initial diagnosis that is acquired by a patient while in a health care facility (namely hospitals)
 * restraint-related injury- patient in surgical or medical restraints end up with musculoskeletal injuries from poor positioning or skin breakdown
 * falls – a patient who may be medicated, physically unstable, or elderly falls and sustains an injury
 * burns – can occur from radiation treatment, heating pad or a medical device
 * pressure ulcer – occurs when a patient is unable to move or feel pain and is left in one position for a long time, compromising blood flow to an area and causing skin to breakdown
 * mistaken patient identity – a patient is given another patient’s medication or taken for a diagnostic exam or to surgery under another patients name
 * wrong-site surgery – the wrong side of the body is treated surgically –left leg rather than right leg amputation
 * suicides
 * adverse drug effect
 * improper transfusions – patients receive the wrong blood type

In a clinical setting or hospital

 * misdiagnosis – a provider incorrectly identifies a patients condition or disease (ex. a patient is diagnosed with heart burn, a gastro-intestinal condition when he actually has a heart condition)
 * under-diagnosis – a provider does not fully identify the cause (ex. a patient with Lyme disease, which is caused by a tick and starts out with vague symptoms like fatigue and joint pain is told he has fibromyalgia)
 * overdiagnosis – something benign is identified as happening often with cancer where non-specific cancer marker is identified with the potential that the cancer carries no risk to the patient's health.
 * unnecessary surgery – a provider performs a surgery without utilizing or ruling out less invasive options (ex. a hysterectomy for uterine bleeding before considering a uterine fibroid artery embolization)
 * under treatment – lack of appropriate follow-up or treatment, often related to lack of health insurance, or inability of provider to diagnose
 * over treatment – a provider provides more interventions than are required (ex. provider prescribes a multiple medications to ensure his patient with epilepsy is seizure free with out considering the side effects)

Reducing and preventing medical harm
In 1999, the Institute of Medicine released the report "To Err Is Human," bringing attention to the issue from both the medical community and the public at large. Emphasizing that "bad systems and not bad people" are the root cause of most harm, the report recommended that safety be a priority for administrators and for hospitals and clinics redesign their systems and create "non-punitive" environments for providers. As a result of this information and public response, Congress designated $50 million in grants to address the issue. Resulting projects included patient safety culture surveys, effective teamwork training, a patient safety checklist to reduce central line-associated bloodstream infections, reducing hospital readmissions through efficient discharge processes, and addressing resident fatigue. In 2005 President Bush signed The Patient Safety and Quality Improvement Act which created whistleblower protection for reporting errors and implemented a voluntary reporting system. Institutions that have created "blameless" reporting systems or the ability to report "close calls" as well as actual incidents of harm have had some success in increasing reporting, but these systems have not been universally adopted. Currently, there is no mandatory national reporting system. Payment incentives, or penalties for hospitals that do not conform to safety standards, have also been suggested as possible mechanisms for reducing medical harm. However, some believe that the issue of reducing medical harm has not been adequately addressed and that a national regulatory body is necessary to mandate and coordinate preventive measures.