User:Lydiahextell/sandbox

= Mate Guarding in Humans = Human mate guarding refers to behaviours employed by both males and females with the aim to maintain reproductive opportunities and sexual access to a mate. It involves discouraging the current mate from abandoning the relationship whilst also warding off intrasexual rivals. It has been observed in other animals (see Sperm Competition) as well as humans. Sexual jealousy is one of the main causes of mate guarding behaviour. Both males and females use different strategies to retain a mate and there is evidence that suggests resistance to mate guarding also exists.

When it is employed
Mate guarding behaviour in males is much more likely to be elicited by the threat of sexual infidelity in a female partner, in comparison to emotional involvement outside the mateship. This is primarily due to the risk female infidelity poses for male paternity, or 'genetic cuckoldry'. In other words, as fertilisation takes place within females, males do not have paternal certainty in the way that females do (females can always be certain that the offspring is theirs, whilst a male cannot). There is supporting evidence for this cross-culturally in a varied range of countries such as China, Germany, Japan or Sweden. Moreover, in physiological tests such as skin conductance and heart rate, men show greater levels of distress when asked to imagine a partner having sexual intercourse with another person. It is also worth noting that mate guarding tactics are more likely to be used if the partner is of high reproductive value e.g. if the female displays signs of high fertility such as youth and physical attractiveness.

Risks
If a male does not successfully prevent an intrasexual (same sex) rivals attempt at mating there are many risks. If the female becomes fertilised, then the male loses the opportunity to reproduce for an extended period of time. Moreover, the male may invest years of time, resources and energy in to a child that is not genetically his own. If this becomes public knowledge, the individual may also face public humiliation, resultantly reducing his social status and affect his future chances to reproduce. There are also ‘opportunity costs’; wherein the male could have been spending lost time pursing alternative mating options.

Male mate guarding behaviour also needs to ensure that the mate does not leave the mateship as this would lose access to future chances that the male may have to reproduce. Moreover, the male would also lose any maternal efforts that the female would have invested in to any potential offspring. Additionally, access to any social benefits or helping networks that the female brought to the relationship could be lost. Finally, the female could also use information, such as strengths or weakness, about the male to exploit him in the future.

Strategies
Mate guarding tactics employed by males tend to be hiding the female from intrasexual threats; this could be not bringing the mate to social events in which other competing males may be present. Another is to request that the female wear items that indicate possession, this could be a wedding ring or the males jacket for example. Males may also provide a demonstrate the quality of resources they have to offer (e.g. buying the mate gifts, or paying for a meal). Men are also more likely to employ threatening and violent behaviour towards intrasexual rivals.

Female Mate Guarding
Female mate guarding is the act of guarding a potential partner away from other competing females. It occurs when women mate with males that are seen as desirable due to their paternal value, see mate value, and are therefore more likely to attract other females. Over 50% of females asked in a survey admitted to poaching another woman’s’ mate, as well as 50% of men admitting that they were unfaithful when presented with a poaching female. It is therefore a balancing act between having close female friendships that can help with childcare, and the sharing of resources, but not letting friends become too close that they have easy access to poach successfully. Females have therefore come up with tactics to ward of any potential threats.

Avoidance
Female mate guarding concentrates on avoiding attractive, fertile females. Research suggests that females are more likely to avoid women that are attractive and exclude them from the group, as these women are interpreted as potential poachers.

Ovulating women are also seen as a threat. Research has shown that women subconsciously change their behaviour across their menstrual cycle, which is picked up on by men. A study by Bobst and Lobmaier (2012), found that men rated photos of ovulating (fertile) women as more attractive, compared to photos of women who were in the luteal (infertile) stage of the menstrual cycle. Men are therefore more likely to pursue ovulating women, which become potential threats for their female mates.

Krems, Neel, Neuberg, Puts and Kenrick (2016) also found that females created larger social distance between themselves and a competing female, but only if she was ovulating and attractive. Similarly, this only occurred if the female was partnered with a desirable mate. This is because other females, especially those who are ovulating, do not desire men that have limited resources.

Proximity
Across the world, it is common for people to sleep in the same bed as one anther after copulation. Humans are more likely to engage in sexual activity at night, so therefore night-time brings the highest danger of infidelity. Due to females investing more in the relationship, women therefore receive more benefits from sleeping with their mate during the night. Keeping close proximity with a partner acts as a mate guarding technique as it minimises the likelihood of unfaithfulness by the male, and also assures their partner of her fidelity. As a result of the paternal confidence, the male is also more likely to stay and provide resources. In a study by Hughes, Harrison and Gallup (2004) it was found that 73.7% of participants said that females are more likely to want to sleep together after sexual intercourse. Mate guarding is a very likely explanation to this, but it may also have the benefits of increasing the females protection, potentially from male poachers.

Fail to introduce
One way of overcoming the issue of friends getting too close to a partner, is to not introduce threatening friends to desirable mates.

In a study by Vaillancourt and Sharma, (2011) women were shown three pictures of the same female. In one picture the model was dressed conservatively, in the other two she was dressed proactively, but in the third the model had been photoshopped to have a larger frame. All the women tested rated the thin, provocatively dressed women as the sexiest. Participants were also twice as likely to avoid introducing the model to their partners compared to the conservatively dressed model, who was rated as the least threatening. Women who are dressed provocatively are seen as more promiscuous, so therefore are less likely to be introduced to partners due to the possibility of poaching.

Resistance to Mate Guarding
Responses to mate guarding, specifically female resistance to it, have also been observed in both humans and other animals. Resistance to mate guarding has been suggested to provide some benefits to partners who do so. Seen as mate guarding serves to reduce mate choice, resistance may allow females to ensure they have access to resources from one mate and also look for higher genetic quality extra pair mates to ensure her children are more likely to survive and reproduce themselves. This is known as the female dual mating strategy theory.

Tactics
Research suggests that female animals exhibit resistance to mate guarding behaviours. There have also been a few studies focusing on mate guarding resistance in female humans. There are numerous tactics that have been recognised as female mate guarding resistance strategies. These include:
 * Covert tactics - for example hiding things from your partner or flirting/speaking to other men when the initial partner isn’t present
 * Resistance to Public Displays of Affection - for example not letting your partner act affectionately towards you in front of others i.e. holding hands or cuddling
 * Reactions against Rival - for example defending rival males when their partner confronted them for expressing an interest in the female
 * High Tech Covert Tactics - for example changing passwords or deleting online or virtual conversations with rivals over text or email
 * Avoiding Partners Contact - for example ignoring calls or texts from your partner


 * Resisting Control - for example fighting about how controlling their partner is or wanting more independence in the relationship

Across the Menstrual Cycle
Female resistance to mate guarding has also been researched in the context of the menstrual cycle. Pillsworth, Haselton and Buss (2004) found that women are more likely to want to mate with males they are not currently pair bonded with during the ovulatory period of their menstrual cycle. They also show higher mate guarding resistance in general during oestrus. This is supported by the finding that during ovulation women who are both single or in a monogamous partnership with a man are more likely to desire to go to social gatherings where they may meet alternative mates. This is said to support the female dual mating strategy theory, as during oestrus women may be seeking out mates with strong genes.

Partner Qualities
Different qualities of the male partner have also been found to affect the existence of resistance to mate guarding in females. Research has found women with partners who have a low genetic quality, as defined by low sexual attractiveness in comparison to available resources, are more likely to show mate guarding resistant behaviours. This is supported as recent research by Abell and Brewer (2016) suggests that women who believe alternative mates compared to her pair bonded male are of a higher quality are also more likely to resist mate guarding too.

Women married to more possessive, controlling or jealous husbands are more likely to be unfaithful as well. Women who experience this type of behaviour from their partners are more likely to show mate guarding resistance particularly by using covert tactics. Females pair bonded with mates who have higher digit span ratios who have previously cheated are also more likely to resist mate guarding. It is suggested that this is due to the risks involved with mate guarding resistance and the aggression of the male. Higher digit span ratios often mean the male has less testosterone and may act less aggressively because of this, meaning the risks of mate guarding resistance for females is lower.

Individual Differences
There is also research into individual differences in female resistance to mate guarding. A recent study by Abell and Brewer (2016) has focused on machiavellianism. They found that women high in this trait are more likely to resist mate guarding attempts and use covert tactics to do so. They suggest that this reflects the characteristics of machivellianism – using glibness and manipulation to get what is wanted and it is argued that this is their way of controlling their partners. This is supported by the finding that females who are more controlling themselves will use more mate guarding resistant tactics too.

Women who have a more unrestricted sociosexual orientation index may also be more likely to resist mate guarding too. This type of sociosexuality is defined by more promiscuity and low levels of intimacy in relationships. Related to this, females who report less investment in their current relationship also exhibit more resistance to mate guarding by avoiding contact with their partner. This strategy along with resisting control has also been found to be more widely used for women who report less intimacy in their relationship.

There has been some research looking into attachment style and mate guarding resistance too. It has been found that women who show more avoidant attachment styles are more likely to resist their partners mate guarding attempts. They are most likely to use avoiding public displays of affection, covert tactics and resisting a partners control. Those who express anxious attachment styles are more likely to resist mate guarding via covert methods.