User:M.E.Chandra/Seljuk architecture

Seljuk Architecture
The Seljuk empire heavily emphasized hospitality combined with rituals of devotion. These beliefs pushed forth the development of buildings such as caravanserais, lodges, and other complexes that focused on providing shelter and food to travelers. These buildings showcase the social and political significance of hospitality in the Seljuq countryside. Madrasas were not just used for teaching but also were meant to host varying rituals and lodging for guests. These buildings had to become adaptable to the changing political and social demands during this time. The multiple orientations of the madrasa shows their adaptability to changing religious situations. The similar plans and functions of lodges and madrasa suggests that all these structures were used as spaces to display hospitality and for rituals. There was also rituals when offering hospitality to guests. The ritual involved first presenting the visitor a meal, then taking the guests to bathe, and later being offered fruit and sweetmeats before listening to the Quran recitation. Lodges and similar buildings served as lively community centers that were clearly connected to the outside world. These structures showcase the social mobility in Seljuq and the emphasis on comfort and generosity.

Caravanserai
Only about a hundred of the caravanserais exist today in varying states of preservation. Several are mostly intact or have been restored. Enough remains of these caravanserais to establish both plan and superstructure. Unfortunately, the majority of caravanserais had no founding inscription or it has since been destroyed. The majority of Seljuk caravanserais were built between 1220 and 1250, which was the height of the Seljuq empire. Seljuq caravanserais are unique in plan and design. However, they do take inspiration from Iranian and Armenian architecture that came before. Providing safety and shelter were the basic function of caravanserais and can be seen in the thick stone masonry walls with only one entrance and slit windows. This single entrance controlled access and was also closed off at night. The roofs of caravanserais were also occasionally used for defense with room set up with advantageous views of the road. Most of the walls have buttresses and are topped with crenellation. These buildings are constructed with large stone ashlars and with conical roofs on tall drums. They are also often adorned with floral and geometric motifs. Seljuq caravanserais have one covered hall and a small open courtyard both rectangular in shape. The entry leads into the open courtyard and is the most prevalent part of the structure. After going through the open courtyard, people can enter the covered hall. The covered hall consists of several aisles of columns and centered with a lantern dome. Seljuq caravanserais had a plain curtain wall with little decoration. The entire ornamentation was focused on the main entry portal.

Shelter was the essential function of the caravanserais. Therefore, these structures had stables for the animals, places for packing and unpacking goods, and lodgings for travelers. The shelter galleries were composed of two parallel bands at two different levels. The lower band on ground level housed the stables and the upper band was a platform that housed the goods and people. These different levels maintained differing degrees of cleanliness, as it separated the animals and people. Many caravanserais also had water systems, including drainage and sewage in the building. These buildings were meant to encourage trade in the Seljuq empire. They were constructed on the principal trade lines and catered to travelers from around the world. Caravanserais served multiple purposes such as military uses, government houses for the sultan and his retinue, and royal guesthouses for visiting monarchs. They also were used as prisons, places of refuge, and for religious purposes. These buildings offered meals, shelter, medical care, bathing, and other such services to all types of travelers. Most of these structures also included a mosque and at least a space to perform religious rituals. The types of service and amount of space that the service areas occupied varied a lot. No two caravanserais had exactly the same plan. They were all unique even if they provided the same services.

Mosques
Anatolian Seljuk mosque architecture was a combination of Turkish-Islamic culture and Anatolian traditions. The smallest type of mosque is the mescid. It was developed during the thirteenth century in central Anatolia. It was composed of a square building topped by a dome. Another small type of mosque is the citadel mosque, or kale mescidi, which was developed in eastern Turkey during the twelfth century. Citadel mosques had more involved plans compared to the mescid. The interior was also divided into several aisles that were covered with barrel-vaults and cross-vaults. Several Seljuk mosques use slender internal supports, such as wooden posts that were ornately carved. These timber posts might have been influenced by the past of Central Asiatic Turks and their large tents held up by similarly carved wooden posts. Most of the twelfth century great mosques in both the southeastern and northeastern regions of the Seljuq empire place a dome in front of the mihrab. This design continues in the thirteenth century were up to three bays were covered by domes. As the years went on, there was increasing emphasis on the dome of the mihrab area of the mosques.

Use of Spolia
The influence of other cultures on the Anatolian Seljuks can also be seen by the use of spolia in Anatolian Seljuk Architecture. There are examples of Anatolian Seljuk architecture using spolia material in visible places in public buildings located at the centers and entrances of cities, such as at the Atabey Ertokuş Madrasa in Atabey/Ispata, Turkey. The high quality of spolia in certain cases, combined with prevalent laws that prevented important public buildings from being demolished, contributed to preserving elements of ancient architectural traditions.

Stonework Imagery in Seljuk Architecture
Having introduced figural representation in their religious and sacred art and architecture, the Seljuks were unprecedented in their prolific use of these motifs; other Islamic cultures used similar representations in their typical art. One keyway in which figures were represented in Seljuk architecture is through stone reliefs; The Seljuks displayed these artforms on their doorways, the most noticeable of places. This practice is typically traced to the Christian-Armenian tradition, of which the Seljuks adopted with the conquest of the territory. This type of stonework was used typical buildings, sacred builds, throughout their city walls and on caravanserais, often on doorways, gates and entrances.

Human Motifs
Human motifs were rarely used in Seljuk architecture. When they were used, they were often displayed in groups or pairs using a mirrored arrangement. Examples of this include the Mosque of Alaeddin in Nigde and The Hospital of Ulu Jami in Divrigi doorway. This type of imagery related to the Seljuks belief in astrology and depicted astrological and planetary symbolism within the stonework. Infrequently, they would depict singular figures, like at the mosque in Divrigi on their hospital gate. This example is thought to be a portrait of a specific person rather than of planetary figures.

Lions
Animal motifs were the most utilized type of imagery under the Seljuk Empire and a favorite included the Lion. They were typically depicted in full relief, were used as gargoyles, and had a similar style to traditional Armenian lion sculptures. Like the human motifs, the use of the lion imagery is often associated with the zodiac symbol for the sun.

Examples:

Lion relief: Chifte Medrese of Kayseri

Lions with Tree of Life and Moon symbol: Doner Gumbed, Kayseri

Lion and Bull fight: Ulu Jami in Diyarbakir (interesting as it is not an Islamic topic or depiction)

Eagle / Birds of Prey
Often linked to tombs, the birds of prey reliefs had varied uses and meanings to the Seljuks. The eagle was originally a symbol of the Oguz, a Turkish tribe that the Seljuks originated from, thus linking the usage and tradition of this symbol to pre-Islamic Central Asia. This symbol was most often used on tombs, turbes, and mausoleums, showing the belief that birds were a type of heavenly guide.

Examples:

Eagle on a Turbe: Emir Saltuq Turbe in Erzurum

Eagle on a Turbe: Hudavent Turbe in Nigde

Double Headed Eagle:
While the Eagle is typically shown on structures relating to death, the double headed eagle has a more complex meaning and is traditionally shown on more sacred architecture. They are depicted a fierce animals, like the lions, and are thought to be a protective motif (this is especially felt when they are displayed on non-sacred structures, like city walls and palaces). Sometimes these birds were hybridized with other threatening animals, like dragons. When used on mausoleums and tombs, Double Headed Birds are connected to the single bird of prey meaning and are thought of a soul-birds.

Examples:

Double-headed eagle as symbol of power:  Ortokid towers of the city wall at Diyarbakir

Imposing Double Headed Eagle on entrance portal: Ulu Jami in Divrigi

Tree of Life and Double Headed Eagle: Doner Gumbet mausoleum in Kayseri

Dragon:
Showing up rarely in sacred Seljuk architecture, the Dragon motif is more commonly used on profane buildings, like city walls and palaces. No matter where the dragons were shown, they were almost always arranged in pairs and facing each other, as if to fight. The Seljuk Dragon had vicious head with open mouths, a twisted, knotted body and tail. Sometimes they had wings and sometimes they were shown with horns. This type of imagery is closely linked to the early Chinese dragons, where similarly twisted and ferocious dragons were displayed above tomb doorways. The dragon was often hybridized with other animals to give those symbols a fierce and protective appearance. When used in sacred structures, the dragon is also linked to the zodiac and the pseudo plant Jawzahar; its head and tail are thought to represent the moons ascending and descending nodes.

Examples:

Confronted Dragons: Kiosk Mosque of the Sultan Han near Kayseri

Confronted Dragons with Tree of Life: Chifte Minareli Medrese in Erzurum

Siren:
A mythical female creature, sirens are thought to ward off evil and were often displayed with crowns, fish tails, and occasionally wings. They were often depicted in hybridized forms. Sirens were also significant to the zodiac themes the Seljuks often portrayed, with Sirens frequently representing the Gemini. The use of Sirens in the Anatolian region dates to Pre-Seljuk eras, with influence from Egyptian textiles and art from the 7th and 8th centuries and Turfan textiles from the 6th and 7th centuries.

Examples:

Siren in Blind Niche: Hudavent Turbe in Nigde

Siren with fish: Palace of Alaeddin Keykobad, Kobadabad

Sphinx:
Common in profane Seljuk architecture but rare in sacred buildings, the Sphinx is another mythical creature the Seljuks utilized on their structures. The Sphinx was thought to ward off evil and had protective characteristics, thus was most commonly used on city walls and palaces. The Sphinx also has a zodiac and planetary implication as well; the Sphinx Wheel shows the creature symbolizing the sun in its rising position, peak, and setting position. The Sphinx, already and hybrid creature, was also frequently hybridized with the various other animal motifs in Seljuk architecture.

Examples:

Sphinx in a battle scene: Tombstone in Museum Karahisar

              Sphinx with Tree of Life: Armenian church of the Holy Cross in Achthamar

Animal Cycle:
In conjunction with the 12-month zodiac, the Seljuks were also interested in the Chinese Zodiac, a 12 year cycle where each year is assigned an animal (Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig). The Seljuks adopted these motifs and utilized them through relief work on several Mausoleums, and, during the later Seljuk Dynasty years under the Mongolians, this type of work was produced even more.

Examples:

Mausoleum Frieze of Chinese Animal Cycle: Sultan Han, near Kayseri

Chinese Animal Cycles: Gok Medrese in Sivas

Lead
Similar to architecture, Seljuk fabrics depict inscriptions and decorative forms. These fabrics represent a historical moment of the Sasanian renaissance marking a new dominance of Persia; textile, along with literary work, proofs the new period. The contrast being the main feature of different techniques and fabric qualities, tells the story of the period with a variety of inscriptions. At the same time, the higher contrast generates a more abstract approach to the ornaments and figures with the fabric patterns.

Seljuk Fabrics that were excavated in 1931 are recognized by the representation of nature, the minimal ornamental details, and the combination of colorful linens giving an interchangeable color effect to the fabric. Many realistic natural elements characterize the composition of the fabrics, such as animals and plants, forming patterns consisted of the arabesque element of the culture.