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= Colonial mentality among Filipinos = Colonial mentality among Filipinos and Filipino Americans is a form of internalized oppression, characterized by a perception of ethnic and/or cultural inferiority. Developed as a product of the Philippines’ history of colonialism and oppression, it involves an automatic, often unconscious, rejection of anything of the Filipino culture or ethnicity and an instinctive, uncritical preference for its European or American counterparts. It has many psychological implications, influencing the identity formation, self-image, and mental health of Filipinos and Filipino Americans.

Pre-Colonial History
(Main articles: Prehistory of the Philippines, History of the Philippines (900-1521) and Indigenous peoples in the Philippines)

Prior to the European discovery of the Philippines by Ferdinand Magellan, large numbers of indigenous peoples had been living on the islands for many generations. The native Filipinos, consisting of hundreds of different ethnic groups, lived in well-developed, highly complex, and culture-rich societies. They each had their own forms of music, art, literature, written and spoken lagged, religion, and government. They had a variety of ways of surviving and thriving in their natural environment, making use of the natural resources that were abundant in the lands, mountains, rivers, and oceans. :11

Spanish Colonialism
(Main article: History of the Philippines (1521-1898))

Spanish colonialism was a result of political, economic, and cultural motives. :155 Spain needed to expand its territory increase national pride and military, and gain status as a world power by colonizing the Philippines and most of South America. In addition, Spain desired commercial enterprise, international trade, and rare raw materials. By taking resources from the Philippines for cheap prices, they were able to gain more wealth for themselves. Spain exploited the Philippines without much regard for the societal implications their activities would have on the country. Also, Spain subscribed to the concept of White Man’s Burden, coined by Rudyard Kipling to describe the rightful duty of the colonizers to civilize and educate the indigenous cultures whom they viewed as “savages”. :156 They viewed the Filipino culture as immoral and inferior in every way, and sought to instill European culture, traditions, and practices among the indigenous people. Colonization meant the demonization of indigenous Filipino culture and way of life. As a result, Filipinos were seen as deviant, primitive, uncivilized, or inferior.

Spain ruled the Philippines from 1565-1890. After the Spanish-American War, the Philippines was granted independence from Spain before it became a territory of the United States from 1899-1946.

Japanese Occupation
After the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941, Japan occupied the Philippines during World War II, taking over most of the country by force. Many reported brutal killings and rape by the Japanese military. This ended with the Japanese surrender to allied forces in 1945. As a consequence of the cruel, atrocious, and murderous acts committed by the Japanese, an anti-Japanese sentiment has formed among many Asian countries, including the Philippines. Filipinos and Filipino Americans may harbor negative and resentful thoughts toward Japanese people, leading to tension. Although the Philippines was not colonized in the traditional sense, Japanese imperialism continues to influence the country’s modern-day capitalism and economic power, particularly in the context of Asia and the Pacific. :160

American Colonialism
(Main article: History of the Philippines (1521-1898))

As a result of the Spanish-American War, the Philippines gained its independence with the aid of U.S. military on June 12, 1898. However, instead of allowing freedom of the Philippines, Spain was forced in the negotiations to hand over the Philippines to the U.S. in exchange for $20 million. Consequently, the U.S. acquired the newly independent Philippines as territory. :161 In this era, Filipinos were encouraged to replace their native identities with American identities, by changing their indigenous names, speaking English, and pledging to the American flag. Filipinos were viewed as less sophisticated than Europeans/Americans and were encouraged to become more civilized and less savage. In fact, Filipinos were often referred to as America’s “little brown brothers”, in that the U.S. government felt a paternalistic need to educate Filipinos to develop more Western values and become more American. The U.S. government continued to colonize the Philippines until the end of World War II in 1946.

Neocolonialism
(See also: Neocolonialism)

Although the Philippines were granted independence in 1946, the United States has continued to have an American military and media presence. Through its military presence, the United States continues to influence the culture, values, and belief systems of the Philippines without directly governing them. For example, American soldiers remain in the Philippines in order to “train” Filipino soldiers in suppressing terrorism and insurgency. :42 American influence has gone so far as to encourage a rapid migration of Filipinos to the United States to this day. :43"“Colonialism has fostered a perception that…the standard of living…in the United States is the mark of a highly sophisticated society (and culture)…adults dream of going to the United States as if longing to be reunited with a long-lost parent…children dream of becoming Americans in the hope that they will finally be able to live in Disney’s Kingdom…For many Filipinos, coming to America means the fulfillment of a lifelong dream…” Rodriquez, 1997 pp.317-318"

Impacts of Colonialism
Spanish and American control of the Philippines had significant, lasting effects on the country. A consistent trend was the replacement of the Filipino economic, political and cultural standards with European practices. :55

Economic
Colonialism resulted in the exploitation of the Philippines' raw goods and natural resources under a capitalist system. :22 Despite the increased rate of economic and technological growth, the Philippines did not receive the profits of its labor and materials, which were instead directed toward their colonizers, particularly the United States. This system rendered the Philippines economically dependent on foreign nations, unable to develop its own sufficient labor market. :113 As a result, the country suffered the severe economic consequences of exploitation and almost half the entire population remains in poverty.

Education
Through their colonial efforts, both Spain and America pushed for the Western standardization of Filipino education. New educational institutions were formed working to glorify European values while denigrating their indigenous counterparts. The notion that the ideals and intellect of European society was more important than that of indigenous culture was engrained into students. :158

American colonialism promoted a more nuanced and effective method of subjugation through education. As noted by historian Renato Constantino, “The molding of men’s minds is the best means of conquest.” :2 The U.S. established American-controlled and American-taught public schools throughout the Philippine and thus, Philippine education was shaped by the objective of preserving and expanding American control. :21 English was taught as the primary language, promoting the concept that “no education can be true education unless it is based on proficiency in English”. :12 In addition, Filipino students were taught U.S. history in lieu of indigenous or pre-colonial history. The U.S. was framed as a dominant but benevolent nation, and the Philippines was consigned to an “idealized picture of farm life”. :12

Moreover, Western education created a tension between those who were educated and those who were not. :158 Educational privileges were granted to the wealthy, including the opportunity to study in the colonizers’ land. For example, the famed nationalist writer Jose Rizal was able to study in Spain :158. The United States established a scholarship program that sent high-achieving Filipino students, dubbed pensionados, to the most prestigious American universities, with the assumption that they will eventually return to the Philippines and become important political and government figures. :21

Culture and Values
Because the Philippines were conquered by Spain for almost 350 years, the Spanish were able to have a significant impact on the Philippines’ language and culture. Many Filipino words, customs, food, music, and clothing have been impacted by Spanish and American culture. For example, a majority of Filipinos today have Spanish surnames. :156

Natives were encouraged to learn the language of the colonizers, both Spanish then English (following American colonization). English is used as the primary language in Philippine education, law, government, business, and science. :42 It is currently the second national language of the Philippines and most Filipinos will speak English at greater levels than any other Asian country. :162 American colonial education encouraged Filipinos to adopt English completely as well as to forget their native dialects. Consequently, proficiency in Tagalog or other dialects is uncommon among the children of Filipino immigrants, due to their belief in the superiority of the English language.

Hierarchies of power were created, and those groups most similar to the colonizer were valued, while those were least similar were devalued. For example, mestizos, individuals with mixed indigenous Filipino and Spanish parentage, with a lighter skin tone and who were educated would be the most valued, while indigenous Filipino persons with a darker skin tone and no formal education would be least valued. These hierarchies often led to tensions within the society, wherein Filipinos would turn against others of the same ethnic group, simply because some benefited from colonial teachings more than others. :159

As a result, standards of beauty were modified to fit the European ideal. Preference was given to lighter skin tones, as seen in both the historical and contemporary favor granted to light-skinned celebrities in entertainment and media. In the Philippines, biracial (mixed with white/European) actors are the most represented, favored, and top-earning individuals in their respective industries. An entire industry exists based on skin whitening or lightening- through creams, bleaching products, and clinics. :159

Religion
Spanish Catholic friars would force Filipinos to accept Christianity as their religion, often employing brutal tactics such as physical abuse, to encourage their learning. As a result, over 90% of the Filipino population is currently either Catholic or Christian. While Filipinos in pre-colonial times may have held more indigenous spiritual views or may have been Muslim, the proselytizing of Spanish missionaries significantly impacted the religion of the Philippines, even into the present day.

Racial Microaggressions
Filipino Americans commonly report experiencing racial microagressions, common acts by an individual or group that sends subtle messages of racism to target groups or individuals. Although they are often unconscious and unintentional, they may be just as psychologically damaging as blatant forms of racism or discrimination. Examples of microagressions include: being treated like a second-class citizen (e.g. being given substandard service or attention compared to others), pathologizing their cultural behaviors and beliefs (e.g. being teased for practicing cultural behaviors that differ from mainstream Americans), assuming that Filipinos are deviant in some way (e.g. judged to be a criminal or gang member), and assuming that Filipinos are or inferior status or intellect (e.g. when Filipino trained professionals are treated as not being as good as others). :42

Term
As a result of the historical exploitation and denigration of the Filipino people through their colonization by Spanish and American forces, Filipinos and Filipino Americans may develop a colonial mentality. For contemporary Filipinos and Filipino American immigrants and their children, this exists through intergenerational family socialization, continuous endorsement of the American version of the Golden Legend (i.e. perceiving Americans as freedom fighters, liberators who saved Filipinos from Spain, the masters of democracy, and enlightening heroes), continued oppression in the United States, and continued Americanization of the Philippines that further endorses the notion of American superiority over the Filipino ethnicity and culture.

Colonial mentality is psychological effect of colonialism, “in which an individual or group come to believe that they are inferior to those in power or who are part of the dominant group”. :51 It “involves an automatic and uncritical rejection of anything and an automatic and uncritical preference for anything American.” :63 With a colonial mentality, the colonizer’s values and beliefs are accepted by the colonized as truths, and the mores of the colonizer are accepted a being superior to those of the colonized. :163 It includes beliefs about race, ethnicity, religion, language, cultural practices, traditions, and standards of beauty. It can result in a variety of psychological, behavioral, and social concerns, and can affect both Filipinos and Filipino Americans. :53

Measurement
Few scholars have attempted to quantifiably measure colonial mentality. David and Okazaki constructed the “Colonial Mentality Scale’ as manner of analyzing and studying its manifestations among Filipinos and Filipino Americans. It is a self-reported questionnaire comprised of 36 statements spanning a range of feelings, opinions attitudes, and behaviors that are common expressions of colonial mentality. Participants are asked to rate their level of agreement to each statement on a 6-point scale, with higher scores indicating higher levels of colonial mentality. (Colonial Mentality Scale 243)

Automaticity and activation
Studies have shown that colonial mentality among Filipinos and Filipino Americans may be activated by mere exposure to either Filipino-or American-related stimuli. Filipino related stimuli are automatically associated with ideas of unpleasantness or inferiority and American-related stimuli are associated with ideas of pleasantness or superiority (Brown Skin 101; David & Okazaki, 2010). Colonial mentality may operate automatically without awareness, intention, or control- meaning Filipinos and Filipino Americans may have and display colonial mentality unintentionally and without their knowledge.

Characteristics and Examples
The historical colonialism and contemporary oppression of Filipinos and Filipino Americans have influenced how they perceive and feel about themselves, other individuals with Filipino heritage, and their past colonizers or others with similar characteristics (David, 75). Consequently, these cognitions have developed behaviors, through colonial perceptions and attitudes, that affect how Filipinos and Filipino Americans interact within and amongst these groups. Colonial mentality may affect a Filipino or Filipino American on many levels, which include the denigration of one’s self, denigration of one’s culture, discrimination against those that are less acculturated, and tolerance and acceptance of contemporary oppression of one’s own ethnic group (David and Okazaki, 2006).

However, colonial mentality does not affect all Filipinos or Filipino Americans. Those who have not experienced colonial occupation are not likely to demonstrate the psychological effects of colonialism. For example, indigenous tribes, such as the Igorot, Ifugao, Negrito, Bagobo, Kalinga, and Tboli tribes have resisted colonial efforts and maintain their ways of life (Brown Skin 64). It is estimated that at least 50% of the Filipino American population has a form of colonial mentality. (Bergano, Bergano-Kinney, 1997)

Internalized inferiority
Colonial mentality is demonstrated in an internalized inferiority among Filipinos and Filipino Americans. Individuals may believe they are of a lesser status simply because of their Filipino ethnicity and culture. One example is the belief that any product “Made in the USA” is automatically higher in quality than anything made in the Philippines. :76

Cultural shame and embarrassment
Individuals with colonial mentality may exhibit cultural shame and embarrassment, in which they may feel ashamed or humiliated by their Filipino culture and ethnicity. :76 This results in a subsequent desire to associate with whiteness, as opposed to their actual ethnic identity. For instance, a light skinned Filipino may reject their Filipino ancestry and instead claim biracial heritage in order to be perceived as more beautiful or valuable with the association of European blood. :164

Whiteness as the standard
Colonial mentality involves the association of European or American practices and lifestyles with superiority, pleasantness, and desirability. :80 Individuals may believe that White or European physical characteristics, such as light skin and narrow noses, are superior to Filipino physical characteristics. Many Filipinos may have equated whiteness with beauty, power, and intelligence. :81 This shift in beauty standards is illustrated in the widespread use of skin-whitening products, practice of staying indoors and away from the sun, and fear of becoming “too dark”. :67

Within-group discrimination
Colonial mentality may result in a tendency to perceive and treat others based on their adherence to colonial beliefs. Discrimination and prejudice may occur within the Filipino ethnic group, with those considered “less-Americanized” or “less-Westernized” as inferior to their acculturated counterparts, those more similar to their colonizer. In this manner, “…aspects of culture such as mannerisms, values, clothing, and interests, in that those who display characteristics that are associated with being Filipino are teased, berated, ignored, and discriminated against…”. :70 An example is the verbal abuse of those who cannot speak English or “FOBs” (fresh-off-the-boat), people with thick Filipino accents. Although they are members of the same ethnic group, Filipinos and Filipino Americans may become hostile toward one another as a result of their colonial mentality- resulting in competition, lack of unity, and tension between subgroups. :165

Colonial debt
Individuals may feel “indebted toward their past colonizers”, with the belief that they are fortunate “for having been colonized” and are thus obligated to treat their colonizers with high regard. Colonial mentality frames colonialism as beneficial, and even valuable, to the colonized. For instance, an individual may look down upon the indigenous Filipinos and believe that Europeans were responsible for the progress and advancement of the country, contrary to the historical realities. :76 This, in turn, preserves and perpetuates American or Western superiority, as they are seen as "civilizing, freedom-giving, unsanctified heroes." :163

Implications and Effects
Colonialism and contemporary oppression has influenced the psychological experiences of Filipinos and Filipino Americans, particularly their perceptions of identity and personhood. On a larger scale, colonial mentality is a major reason for the lack of societal presence, political clout, and social unity of the Filipino American, as well as the lack of cultural pride, historical knowledge, and cultural appreciation among Filipino and Filipino American individuals (Brown Skin, 65).

Loss of indigenous and cultural values
Psychologist Virgilion Enriquez identifies kapwa, the unity and connection of a person with other people, as the core value of the Filipino culture.

With colonial mentality, individuals

Conflicts with identity
Colonial mentality affects the value individuals place on their ethnic identity. From a young age, Filipinos and Filipino Americans are consistently presented with messages (e.g. preference for lighter skin tones) that encourage their adoption of American or Western practices, enforcing their perceived inferiority. :129 This not only results in their development of colonial mentality from a young age, but also their subsequent struggles with their Filipino identity. As psychologist Maria P. Root writes, "Although Filipinos are perhaps most similar in appearance to persons of Latino and Native American and Native Hawaiian heritage, defining and identifying who is Filipino cannot rest predominantly on physical appearance. However, without articulation of what is Filipino, without recognition of the injurious process of racialization, and without positive role models of Filipinos for some persons, young people are subject to using the template by which people struggle with racial identity in a limited, monoracial paradigm."Research has shown that higher levels of colonial mentality are related to lower levels of ethnic identity development,  specifically according to the Pilipino American Identity Development model (PAID) developed by Kevin Nadal. The PAID model is comprised of six non-linear stages: (1) Ethnic awareness; (2) Assimilation to dominant culture; (3) Social political awakening; (4) Pan-ethnic Asian American Consciousness; (5) Ethnocentric Realization; and (6) Incorporation. Filipinos and Filipino Americans with colonial mentality are stalled in the development of their ethnic identity, particularly in Stage 2 wherein the messages reinforcing American or Western superiority are internalized and upheld. :135

Acculturation
(Main article: Acculturation)

Studies suggest that Filipinos or Filipino Americans who have colonial mentality tend to not value, understand, participate, or be connected with their Filipino heritage, and instead tend to be more likely to assimilate and adhere only to the dominant American culture (Brown Skin 141).

As a result of this, Filipinos and Filipino Americans tend to be less satisfied with their lives, due to the loss of their ethnic identity under colonial mentality.

Self-esteem
(Main article: Self-esteem)

Colonial mentality is related to lower levels of personal and collective self-esteem among Filipinos and Filipino Americans. Filipinos and Filipino Americans who have colonial mentality tend to have more negative evaluations of their personal characteristics and the characteristics of Filipino culture and ethnicity. (Brown Skin 143)

Depression
(Main article: Depression)

Filipinos and Filipino Americans who have colonial mentality tend to experience more symptoms of depression than Filipinos and Filipino Americans who do not have colonial mentality. By targeting, the enculturation, ethnic identity, personal and collective self-esteem of these individuals, colonial mentality renders them vulnerable to depression. (Brown Skin 145)