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Zamorin of Calicut (Samoothiri; Malayalam: സാമൂതിരി/സാമൂരി, Portuguese: Samorim, Dutch: Samorijn, Chinese: Shamitihsi ) is the title of the Hindu monarch of the Kingdom of Calicut (Kozhikode) on Malabar Coast, India. The Zamorins were based at the city of Kozhikode, one of the important trading ports on the south-western coast of India. At the peak of their reign, the Zamorin's ruled over a region from Kollam (Quilon) to Panthalayini Kollam.

It was after the fall of the Cheras of Cranganore (Kodungallur) in early 12th century, the Zamorins - originally Eradis of Nediyirippu (Eranadu) - asserted their political independence. The chiefs maintained elaborate trade relations with the Middle-Eastern sailors in the Indian Ocean, the primary spice traders on the Malabar Coast in the Middle Ages.

The Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama visited the Kozhikode in 1498, opening the sailing route directly from Europe to Asia. Kozhikode was then the most important trading centre of southern India. The Portuguese efforts to lay the foundations to Estado da Índia, and to take complete control over the commerce was repeatedly hampered by the forces of Zamorin of Kozhikode. The Kunjali Marakkars, the famous Muslim admirals, were the naval chiefs of Kozhikode. By the end of the 16th century the Portuguese - now commanding the spice traffic on the Malabar Coast - had succeeded in replacing the Middle-Eastern merchants in the Arabian Sea. The Dutch supplanted the Portuguese in the 17th century, only to be followed by the English.

In 1766 Haider Ali of Mysore defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode - an English East India Company dependant at the time - and absorbed Malabar district to his state. After the Third Mysore War (1790-92), Malabar was placed under the control of the Company. Later the status of the Zamorins as independent rulers was changed to that of pensioners of the Company (1806).

Etymology


The term "Samoothiri" appears in sources only after the c. 15th century, first time in the writings of Abd-ur-Razzaq. Ibn Batutah visited the country in the 14th century (1342–1347), but only refers to the rulers as "Punthureshan Kunnalakkonathiri". It is safe to assume that the Eradis of Nediyirippu might have assumed the title of "Samoothiri" in a later period.

The Zamorins used these titles - such as Punthurakon - and no records indicate the actual personnel name of the ruler.

Capitals
The Eradi clan had their original base at Nediyiruppu (near present-day Kondotty) and were land-locked and sought an outlet to the Arabian Sea. They subsequently moved their capital to the present-day Kozhikode, then also called "Thrivikramapuram". According to K. V. Krishna Ayyar, the city of Kozhikode was founded on a marshy tract in the 11th century AD by the Eradis. In the Middle Ages, Kozhikode was dubbed the "City of Spices" for its role as the major trading point of eastern spices. The Chinese and Middle-Eastern interests in Malabar, the political ambition of the newly emergent rulers, i.e, the Zamorins, and the decline of port Kodungallur [1341 AD ], etc. boosted the prosperity of the port. The rise of the Kozhikode seems to have taken place after the 13th century AD.

The name Kozhikode is thought to be derived from Koyil (Royal Palace) and Kota (Fort) meaning 'Fortified Palace'. Travellers have called the city by different names - variations of the Malayalam name. The travellers from Middle-East called it "Kalikooth", Tamils called the city "Kallikkottai", for the Chinese it was "Kalifo" or "Quli". The name of the famous fine variety of cotton cloth called calico is also thought to have derived from Kozhikode. Other seats of the Zamorin of Kozhikode were Ponnani, Trichur (Thrissur) and Cranganore (Kodungallur).

Caste and succession line
As per K. V. Krishna Iyer, the court historian in Kozhikode, the members of the royal house of Zamorin belonged to Eradi subdivision of the Samanta (Samantan) section of the Nair community [in the 20th century]. The Hindu theological formula that the rulers must be of Kshatriya varna may have been a complication for the Nair Samantas of the Chera monarch. So the Samantas - already crystallized itself as a distinctive social group, something of a "sub-caste" - began to style themselves as "Samanta Ksatriyas" and started claiming a status higher than the rest of the Nairs.

In the family, thalis of the girls were usually tied by Kshatriya s from Cranganore chief's family, which the Zamorin recognised as more ancient and therefore higher rank. The majority of the women's sambandham partners were Nambudiri Brahmins.

The family of chieftains that ruled the polities in Kerala was known as the Swaroopam (the Royal House). The rulers of Kozhikode belonged to "Nediyirippu Swaroopam" and followed matriliny system of inheritance. The eldest male member of Nediyirippu Swaroopam became the Zamorin of Kozhikode. There was a set pattern of succession, indicated by Places of Dignity - sthanams - in the royal line. Five sthanams were defined in Kozhikode. These positions were based on the chronological seniority of the incumbent in the different Royal Collateral Branches of the Royal House and constituted what is called in the records as "Kuruvazhcha". Unlike in the case of Kochi (Cochin), there was no rotation of position among the Royal Collateral Branches. Thus no particular Royal Collateral Branch enjoyed any privilege or precedence in the matter of succession, as the only criterion for succession was seniority of age.

Five sthanams existed in Kozhikode, each with its own separate property enjoyed in succession by the senior members of the three Royal Branches (Kovilakams) of the family. The Zamorin's family, being Eradis were connected to several other Eradi clans who are resident in Nilambur, Ponnani and nearby localities in Malappuram.


 * 1st sthanam: Zamorin of Kozhikode
 * 2nd sthanam: The second in line successor to the throne (Crown Prince) is known as the Eralppadu (the Eranadu Ilamkur Nambiyathiri Thirumulpadu) and his official seat was in Karimpuzha (in the northeastern region of the present-day Palakkad district). This area was annexed from Valluvanadu in the leadership of the then Eralppadu.
 * 3rd sthanam: Eranadu Moonnamkur Nambiyathiri Thirumulpad (the Munalpadu)
 * 4th sthanam: Itattoornadu Nambiyathiri Thirumulpadu
 * 5th sthanam: Nediyiruppu Mootta Eradi Thirumulpadu (the Naturalpadu). The former Head of the house (Eranadu Utaiyer under the Cheras ).

The three Royal Collateral Branches (tavazhi) were,
 * Kizhakke Kovilakam (Eastern Branch)
 * Padinhare Kovilakam (Western Branch)
 * Puthiya Kovilakam (New Branch)

The senior female member of the whole Zamorin family, the Valiya Thamburatti, also enjoyed a Places of Dignity with separate property known as the Ambadi Kovilakam.

Dominions
The post-Chera period witnessed the emergence of the three small polities in Kerala - Kozhikode (Calicut), Kolathunadu (Cannanore), and Venadu (Quilon). As per M. G. Raghava Varier, at the peak of their reign, the Zamorin's ruled over a region from Kollam (Quilon) to Panthalayini Kollam. In the 15th century, the kingdom of Kozhikode covered almost all of later Malabar district (South Malabar) and Cochin state.

Apart from the southern half of Kurumburanadu, Payyanadu, Polanadu, Ponnani, Cheranadu, Venkatakkotta (Kottakkal), Malappuram, Kappul, Mannarakkadu, Karimpuzha, Nedunganadu, Naduvattom, Kollangodu, Kotuvayur, and Mankara the Kingdom of Kozhikode included the following territories as "tributary polities" in the during the late 15th century: Kottayam, Payyormala, Pulavayi, Tanore (Vettam), Chaliyam, Beypore, Parappanadu, Thirunavaya, Talapalli-Kakkad, Talapalli-Punnattur, Chittur, Chavakkad, Kavalappara, Edappally, Patinjattedam, Cranganore, Kollengodu, Kochi (Cochin) and all of its vassal polities, Paravur, Purakkad, Vadakkumkur, Tekkumkur, Kayamkulam and Quilon. However, Kozhikode's control over most of the polities in Travancore region seems to be only nominal in the late 15th century.

The kingdom only included the following territories during the late 18th century: Payyanadu, Polanadu, Ponnani, Cheranadu, Venkattakkotta, Malappuram, Kappul, Mannarakkadu, Karimpuzha, and Nedunganadu. The Zamorin claimed to be - with more or less influence - the "paramount sovereign" over Payyormala, Pulavayi, Beypore, Parappanadu, Tanore (Vettam), Talapalli, Chavakkadu and Kavalappara. Kozhikode had also taken possession of - the more full and immediate - sovereignty over Kollangodu (Venninnagu), Kotuvayur and Manakara.

Ports
The chief ports under control of the Zamorins in the late 15th century were Panthalayini Kollam and Kozhikode (Calicut). The Zamorin of Kozhikode derived greater part of his revenues by taxing the trade through his ports. Smaller ports in the kingdom were Puthuppattanam, Parappanangadi, Tanur (Tanore), Ponnani (Ponani), Chetuva (Chetwai) and Kodungallur (Cranganore). The port of Beypore served as a ship building center. Thrikkavil Kovilakam in Ponnani was as a second home of the Zamorins of Kozhikode.

The port at Kozhikode held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi (Cochin) and Kannur (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles.

Kozhikode

 * Trade at port Kozhikode was managed by the port commissioner known as the "Shah Bandar Koya". The port commissioner supervised the customs on the behalf of the king, fixed the prices of the commodities and collected the share to the Kozhikode treasury.
 * Kozhikode - despite being located at a geographically inconvenient spot - owed much of its prosperity of the Zamorins of Kozhikode. The rise of the Kozhikode seems to have taken place after the 13th century AD.

Panthalayini Kollam

 * Also known as "Fandarina" (Ibn Batutah), and "Shaojunan" (Daoyi Zgilue).
 * Located north of Kozhikode, close to a bay. The geographical location is ideal for the wintering of ships during the annual monsoon rains.
 * Presence of Chetti, Arab and Jewish merchants among others.

Early History
Famous legends such as the Cheraman Perumal tradition in The Origin of Kerala recount the events leading to establishment of Kozhikode. It mentions two young brothers belonging to the Nair Eradi clan from a local ruling family at Nediyiruppu, near present-day Kondotty. The brothers Manikkan and Vikraman were the most trusted generals in the army of the Cheras. However, during the partition of Chera Kingdom, the Chera monarch failed to allocate any land to these two brothers. Filled with guilt, the king later gave his personal sword and his favourite prayer conch - the sword and the conch were both broken - to his general and told him to occupy as much as land he can with all his might. So the young general conquered neighbouring polities and created a powerful kingdom for himself. As a token of his respect to the Chera king, he adopted the logo of two crossed swords, with a broken conch in the middle and a lighted lamp above it.

Historical records regarding the origin of the Zamorin of Kozhikode are obscure. However, it is generally agreed among historians that the Zamorins were originally the "hereditary governors" of Eralnadu region of the Chera Kingdom [9th—12th century AD] and were known as the "Eradis". On the basis of the strength of the "Hundred Organisation" of the senior prince of Eranadu, which was Six Hundred, it has been suggested that Eranadu be of about the same size as Ramavalanadu, Valluvanadu, Kizhmalanadu, Venadu etc. during the Chera period. One comes across only one nadu in this period with a stronger force, namely Kurumpuranadu, with a force of Seven Hundred although many lesser ones with Five Hundred, Three Hundred, etc., are available. Although there is no solid basis for the famous partition legend surrounding the end of Cheras, it is a possibility that following the mysterious disappearance of the Chera ruler, the land was partitioned and that the governors of different nadus gained independence, proclaiming it as their gift from the last sovereign.

Eralanadu Utaiyavar appears as signatories in the Jewish Copper Plate of Bhaskara Ravi [11th century] and the Syrian Christian Copper Plate of Vira Raghava [13th century]. Kollam Ramesvaram temple inscription of Ramavarma Kulasekhara [12th century] and the Muchundi mosque inscription of Punthurakkon [13th century] are the other two important epigraphical sources



There is some ambiguity regarding the exact course of events that led to the establishment of Eradi's rule over Kozhikode, their later capital.

According to traditions, after the decline of the Cheras, Kozhikode and its suburbs formed part of a polity called Polanadu ruled by Polarthiris. The Eradis of Eralnadu were land-locked and sought an outlet to the Arabian Sea to initiate trade and commerce. To accomplish this, the Eradis marched with their Nairs towards Panniyankara and besieged the Polartiri in his headquarters, resulting in a 48 - year - long conflict. The Eradi was unsuccessful in his attempt, and the he propitiated the Bhagavati, bribed the followers of Polarthiri and even the consort of the ruler of Polanadu and won them to his side. Learning of this treachery Polarthiri fled from his fort at Kozhikode. Eventually, the Eradis emerged victorious in their expansion to Polanadu and shifted their seat from Nediyiruppu to Kozhikode. Eradis built a fort at a place called "Velapuram" to safeguard their new interests. The fort most likely lent its name to Koyil Kotta [the precursor to the present name Kozhikode].

Some historians are of the view that the Eradi was in fact a favourite of the last Chera king as the he was at the forefront of the battles with the Chola - Pandya forces [in south Kerala]. The Eradi seems to have led the Chera army to victory. The king therefore granted him, as a mark of favour, a small tract of land on the sea-coast in addition to his hereditary possessions [Eralnadu province]. This patch of marshy wasteland was called chullikkadu. The Eradis subsequently moved their capital to the coastal marshy lands and established the city of Kozhikode, then also called "Thrivikramapuram". To corroborate his assertion that Eradi was in fact a favourite of the last Chera, scholars cites a stone inscription discovered at Kollam in southern Kerala. It refers to "The Four Councillors, The Thousand, The Six Hundred, along with Mana Vikrama - the Governor of Eralanadu and other Feudatories". The scholars indicate that Kozhikode lay in fact beyond and not within Polanadu and there was no need of any kind of military action for the control of Kozhikode.

Access to the sea helped the Eradi chief to develop the city into one of the major trading centres in south India abounding in a wide variety of goods like black pepper, ginger, cardamom and textiles. Vessels of various sizes from around the world - like Chinese junks - arrived at Kozhikode.

Expansions to central Kerala
The power balance in Kerala changed as Eralnadu rulers developed the port at Kozhikode, allied with Middle-Eastern merchants. The Zamorin became one of the most powerful chiefs in Kerala. In some of his expansions - such as that into Valluvanadu - the ruler received unambiguous assistance from the Middle-Eastern sailors. It seems that the qadi of Kozhikode offered all help in "money and material" to the Zamorin to strike at Thirunavaya.

Smaller chiefdoms south of Kozhikode - Beypore, Chaliyam, Parappanadu and Tanur [Vettam] - soon had to submit and became their feudatories one by one. The rulers of Payyormala, Kurumbranadu, and other Nair chiefs on the suburbs of Kozhikode also acknowledged the supremacy of Kozhikode. There were battles between Kozhikode and Kurumbranadu for a coastal region called Payyanadu. Payyanadu was a part of Kurumbranadu in early times, and was [later] given as a "royal gift" to Kozhikode. Kozhikode easily overran the Kurumbranadu warriors in the battle and Kurumbranadu had to sue for peace by surrendering Valisseri.

The ruler of Kozhikode next turned his attention to the valley of Perar. Large parts of the valley was then ruled by Valluvakkonathiri, the hereditary chief of Valluvanadu. The principal objective of Kozhikode was the capture [the sacred settlement] of Thirunavaya from Valluvanadu. Soon they found themselves intervened in the so-called kurmatsaram between Nambudirs of Panniyurkur and Chovvarakur. In the most recent tensions, the Nambudiris from Thirumanasseri Nadu had assaulted and burned the nearby rival village. The rulers of Valluvanadu and Perumpadappu [modern Kochi] came to help the Chovvaram and raided Panniyur simultaneously. Thirumanasseri Nadu was overran by its neighbours on south and east. The Thirumanasseri Nambudiri appealed to the ruler of Kozhikode [and Tanur] for help, and promised to cede Ponnani to Kozhikode as the price for his protection. Kozhikode, looking for such an opportunity, gladly accepted the offer.

Assisted by the combined corps of their subordinate chiefs [the chiefs of Chalium, Beypore, Tanur and Cranganore] and the naval fleet under the port commissioner [the Koya] of Kozhikode, the Zamorin fighters advanced by both land and sea. The main force under the command of Zamorin himself attacked - encamping at Thripangodu - an allied force of Valluvanadu and Perumpadappu from the north, initiating the so-called Thirunavaya battles. Meanwhile, another force under Eralppadu [crown prince] commanded a fleet across the sea and landed at Ponnani and later moved to Thirumanasseri, with intention to descend on Thirunavaya from the south [with help of the warriors of the Thirumanasseri Brahmins]. Eralppadu also prevented the warriors of Perumpadappu joining Valluvanadu forces. The Muslim naval merchants and commanders at Ponnani supported the Kozhikode force with food, transport and provisions. The warriors of the Eralppadu moved north and crossed the River Perar and took up position on the northern side of the river. The commissioner marched at the head of a large column, and stormed Thirunavaya. In spite of the fact that the warriors of Valluvanadu did not get the timely help of Perumpadappu, they fought vigorously and the battle dragged on. In the meantime, the Kozhikode minister Mangattachan was also successful in turning Kadannamanna Elavakayil Vellodi [junior branch of Kadannamanna] to their side. Finally, two Valluvanadu princes were killed in the battles, the Nairs abandoned the settlement and Kozhikode infested Thirunavaya.

The capture of Thirunavaya was not the end of Kozhikode's expansion into Valluvanadu. The Zamorin continued surges over on Valluvanadu. Malappuram, Nilambur, Vallappanattukara and Manjeri were easily occupied. He encountered stiff resistance in some places and the fights went on in a protracted and sporadic fashion for a long time. Further assaults [in the east] against Valluvanadu were neither prolonged nor difficult for Kozhikode. Moreover, Zamorin successfully followed a policy of appeasing the feudatories/governors of Valluvanadu and conferring upon them the areas they originally held under Valluvanadu.

The battles along the western borders of Valluvanadu were bitter, for they were marked by treachery and crime. Panthalur and Ten Kalams came under Kozhikode only after a protracted struggle. The assassination of a minister of Kozhikode by the Chief Minister of Valluvanadu while visiting Venkatakkotta in Valluvanadu sparked the battle, which dragged on for almost a decade. At last the Valluvanadu minister was captured by Zamorin's warriors and executed at Padapparambu, and his province [Ten Kalams, including Kottakkal and Panthalur] were occupied by the Zamorin. The Kizhakke Kovilakam Munalappadu, who took a leading part in this campaign, received half of the newly captured province from Zamorin as a gift. The loss of this fiercely loyal Chief Minister was the greatest blow to Valluvanadu after the loss of Tirunavaya and Ponnani.

Expansions to Cochin
Kozhikode troops faced defeat in their next assault on Perumpadappu. The combined forces of Perumpadappu and Valluvanadu resisted Kozhikode warriors and a vicious battle ensued for three days, at the end of which Kozhikode forces was on the retreat. After a period of uneasy calm in Kerala, Kozhikode 	occupied Nedunganadu, a small polity between Valluvanadu and Palakkad [Palghat]. Nedunganadu was overran without striking even a single blow. The chief of Nedunganadu surrendered to the Kozhikode forces at Kodikkuni. Then the Kozhikode warriors captured a number of smaller villages around Thirunavaya - such as Thiruvegappuram - from Valluvanadu. The Valluvanadu governor tried to overcome the Kozhikode prince’s advance at Kolakkadu. Near Karimpuzha in Valluvanadu, the untouchables - the Cherumas and Panans of Kotta - resisted the advancing forces. The Kozhikode won their affection by gifts and presents. Kozhikode prince was met by an ancestor of Kavalappara Nair, a vassal of Valluvanadu, at Karakkadu. The chiefs under Palakkad surrendered to Kozhikode at Vengotri, Nellayi and Kakkathodu. Zamorin of Kozhikode appointed the Eralppadu as the governor of southern Malabar region during this time. The provincial capital was at Karimpuzha. Talappilli [present day taluk of the same name and coastal regions from Ponnani to Chetwai] and Chengazhinadu submitted to Kozhikode without any resistance.

Kozhikode then completed the subjugation Ponnani taluk from Valluvanadu and captured Vannerinadu from Perumpadappu. The Perumpadappu ruler was forced to shift their base further south to Thiruvanchikkulam. When Trikkanamatilakam near Thiruvanchikkulam came under the Kozhikode control and Perumpadappu ruler again shifted their base further south to Kochi [ Cochin, in 1405 AD ].

Kozhikode subjugated large parts of the state of Kochi in the subsequent years. The family feud between the elder and younger branches of the ruling family of Kochi was exploited by the Zamorin of Kozhikode. The intervention was initiated as Kozhikode’s help was sought against the ruling younger branch. The rulers of Cranganore, Idappalli, Airur, Sarkkara, Patinjattedam [Thrissur] and Chittur supported or joined Kozhikode forces in this occupation of Kochi. Some of these were the vassals of Kochi. The Kochi chief was defeated in a battle at Thrissur and his palace was occupied. But, the defeated chief escaped to further south. Pursuing the chief to south, the Kozhikode forces under Zamorin penetrated and occupied the town of Kochi. Unable to withstand the attacks, Kochi finally accepted Kozhikode's rule and became it's feudatory. The prince from the elder branch was installed on the throne of Kochi as vassal.

The battles against Kochi were followed by a battle against Palakkad and the expansion to Naduvattom by a Kozhikode prince. Kollengode of Venganadu Nambitis was also put under the sway of Kozhikode during the time. The severe and frequent battles with Valluvanadu by Kozhikode continued. But even after the loss of his superior ally Kochi, Valluvanadu did not submit to Kozhikode. The ruler of Kozhikode followed a custom of settling Muslim families and the families of other Hindu generals who had allegiance to him, in the captured areas of Valluvanadu. Kozhikode occupied Valluvanadu [now shrank to Attappadi valley, parts of Mannarkkad, Ottappalam and Perinthalmanna] but could not make much progress into its hinterland.

Kozhikode was also successful in bringing the polity of Cannanore [Kolathunadu] under their control. During his expansions, the Zamorin occupied Pantalayini Kollam as a preliminary advance to Kolathunadu. Kolattiri immediately sent ambassadors to submit to whatever terms Kozhikode might dictate. Kolathunadu transferred the regions already occupied to Kozhikode [and certain Hindu temple rights]. The stories about the origin of the Kadathanadu ruling family (Vatakara) are associated with battle of the Eradis with Polanadu. When the Zamorin swarmed over Polanadu, he exiled a Polarthiri royal princess and she was welcomed in Kolathunadu (Cannanore) - one of the Zamorin's rivals polities. After the marriage of a Kolatthu prince with this princess the Kadathanadu ruling family was born. The name Kadathanadu refers to as the passing way between Kolathunadu and Kozhikode. After their expansion to central Kerala, Kozhikode might have waged battles against Quilon [Venadu Swaroopam]. However, historians reject the whole of idea of the southern expedition by Kozhikode. According to them, some land and Hindu temple rights were transferred to Kozhikode during a visit to Quilon by a ruler of the Kozhikode.

Vijayanagara conquests
Deva Raya II (1424 - 1446 AD) - king of the Vijayanagara Empire - conquered the whole of present-day Kerala state in the 15th century. He defeated (1443) rulers of Venadu (Quilon), as well as Kozhikode. Fernão Nunes says that the Zamorin and even the kings of Burma ruling at Pegu and Tenasserim paid tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire. Later Kozhikode and Venadu seems to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion.

As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala. Zamorin built a fort at Ponnani in 1498.

An embassy from the Zamorin of Kozhikode - in which the chief envoy was a Persian-speaking Muslim - came to the Timurid court of Mirza Shahrukh at Herat in the 15th century. Some Herat officials had, some years earlier, on their return journey from the Sultanate of Bengal, been stranded at port Kozhikode, and on this occasion had been received by the Zamorin of Kozhikode. Impressed by the description of the Timurid influence, the Zamorin decided to sent his own embassy to Herat. Abdur Razzaq, an employ of Shahrukh, was soon engaged on a mission to Kozhikode (November 1442 - April 1443). He carried a series of presents from Herat, including a horse, a pelisse, headgear and ceremonial robes. "As for duties [at Kozhikode], at one-fortieth, and that too, only on sales, they are even lower that at Hormuz [in the Persian Gulf]", says Abdur Razzaq. While in Kozhikode, he was invited by the Vijayanagara ruler Deva Raya II to his court. The envoy arrived from the Vijayanagara king had "asked" the Zamorin to send the Herat envoy on to his court. He also says the king of Vijayanagara does not possess "jurisdiction" over the Kingdom of Kozhikode, but the Zamorin was apparently "still in great awe of the Vijayanagar king".

Relations with Yuan and Ming China
From the 13th century, Kozhikode developed into the major trading centre where the Middle-Eastern and Chinese sailors met to exchange their products. Marco Polo visited Kozhikode in 1293-94. Ibn Batutah refers to the brisk Chinese trade at Kozhikode. Wang Ta-yuan - during the Yuan period - describes the pepper trade in Kozhikode in his work "Tao-i-Chih". Zheng He (Cheng Ho), the renowned Ming - Chinese admiral, visited Kozhikode in 1407, 1409, and in 1431-33 etc. Zheng - most probably - died at Kozhikode in 1433 AD during his seventh voyage to the West.

The principle objective of the first expedition (1405-07) was the Kingdom of Kozhikode. Historians presume that the fleet stayed from December 1406 to April 1407 at Kozhikode. Ambassadors from Kozhikode, among envoys from other states, accompanied the returning (first expedition) fleet bringing articles of "tribute" to Nanking in 1407. The envoys in the second expedition (1407-09) carried out the formal "investiture" of the Zamorin of Kozhikode "Mana Piehchialaman". Zheng did not actually accompanied the expedition, and it was directed by his associates. A memorial inscription was erected in Kozhikode to commemorate the investiture. The Chinese titles and gifts [brocades and gauzes] were given to the Zamorin and his retinue by the Chinese envoys. Presumably a stay of about four months was made at Kozhikode, possibly from December 1408 to April 1409. The third expedition (1409-11) also visited Kozhikode. The fleet sailed on from Kozhikode to Ceylon in 1411. The fourth (1413-15, Ma Huan's first voyage under Zheng), fifth (1417-19) and sixth fleets also visited Kozhikode. A number of tribute delegations - in 1421, 1423, 1433 among others - were dispatched by the Kozhikode rulers to Nanking and Peking. Presents from Kozhikode included horses and black pepper. Some representatives of the Kozhikode reached the Ming court in the years between 1403 - 33. Brocades of several types were presented to the some of the Kozhikode envoys. Ma Huan visited Kozhikode all the seven times, and describes the trade in the region. Fei-Hsin also notices the brisk trade at Kozhikode. Abd-ur-Razzaq visited Kozhikode in 1443 AD.

The few remnants of the Chinese trade can be seen in and around the present city of Kozhikode. This include a Silk Street, Chinese Fort ("Chinakotta"), Chinese Settlement ("Chinachery" in Kappad), and Chinese Mosque ("Chinapalli" in Panthalayini Kollam). It seems that Chinese merchants were replaced by Middle Eastern sailors in a later period. This group included from Muslims from Arabia, Cairo (the Kareme/Karimi merchants linked with the Mamluks), Turkey, Iraq and Persia.

Relations with the Portuguese


The landing of Vasco da Gama in Kozhikode in 1498 has often been considered as the beginning of a new phase in history during which the control of the Indian Ocean passed into the hands of the Europeans from Middle Eastern Muslims. The strong colony of merchants - mostly Arabs - settled in Kozhikode was hostile, but the Zamorin welcomed the Portuguese and allowed them to take spices on board. In Portugal, the goods brought by da Gama from India were computed at sixty times the cost of the entire Asia expedition. The Portuguese set about breaking the monopoly which Venetians and the Egyptians had so long enjoyed in the trade with India. The Egyptians and the Ottoman Turks realised the danger, but internal complications between them gave the Portuguese an opportunity.

The Portuguese entered into conflictual relations with the Zamorin of Kozhikode and his Middle Eastern Muslim merchants. As per Harold V. Livermore, it was the [Middle Eastern] Muslim financiers and magnates at Kozhikode who persuaded the Zamorin of Kozhikode to turn against the Portuguese. However, the procurement of spices and textiles also saw them entering into some type of amicable relations with Mappila and Syrian Christian traders, whom they used as brokers and intermediaries in purchase and sale. But this did not last long, the Estado da Índia soon entered into conflict with several principle Mappila trading families. This was partly due to their policies, and partly on account of the brutal acts they carried out [such as the killing of a relative of the Mammali of Cannanore and the assassination of the qazi of Kannur]. Mappila traders actively worked even in the kingdoms of Ceylon to oppose the Portuguese, and in the kingdom of Kozhikode declared a jihad against the Estado. Kunjali Marakkars were the famous admirals of Kozhikode and organised a powerful navy to fight the Portuguese.

By mid-16th century, the Portuguese managed to curtail the vital trade between Kozhikode and the Middle East. In the end of the century, Cochin was the dominant seaport in Kerala, having surpassed both Kannur and Kozhikode. Francisco de Almeida (1505-09) and Afonso de Albuquerque (1509-15) - who followed da Gama to India - were instrumental in establishing the Império Colonial Português in Asia.

Relations with the Dutch and English
In 1602, the Zamorin sent messages to Aceh, where the Verenigde Zeeuwsche Compagnie had a factory, promising the Dutch a fort at Kozhikode if they would come and trade there. Two factors Hans de Wolff and Lafer were sent on an Asian ship from Aceh, but the two were captured by the chief of Tanur, and handed over to the Portuguese. These men were later hanged in Goa.

A Dutch fleet under Admiral Steven van der Hagen arrived in Kozhikode in November 1604. It marked the beginning of the Dutch presence in Kerala and they concluded a treaty with Kozhikode on 11 November 1604. By this time the Kingdom and the port of Kozhikode was much reduced in importance. The treaty provided for a mutual alliance between the two to expel the Portuguese from Malabar. In return the Dutch East India Company was given facilities for trade at Kozhikode and Ponnani, including spacious storehouses.

In 1610, Cornelis Jacobsz van Breekvelt and Hans Bullardm arrived at Kozhikode and re-promulgated the old treaty. In 1617, Pieter van den Broecke was asked by a Zamorin prince to aid them in a battle against Cochin. The Dutch refused to help the Kozhikode rulers.

The Dutch - some fifteen years after the Zamorin's first asked for help - had promised much and delivered almost nothing. The Zamorin finally turned to the English. In September 1610, the English factors at Mocha were approached by the head of the Mappilas there to their shipping in the region from the Portuguese fleets. The English reached Kozhikode under Captain William Keeling and concluded a treaty of trade (1616) under which, among others, the English were to assist Kozhikode in expelling the Portuguese from Fort Cochin and Fort Cranganore. The English set up a factory at Kozhikode, and a factor George Woolman is sent there with a stock of presents. But the Zamorin soon found the English as unreliable as the Dutch where the military aid was concerned. The factory was wound up in March, 1617.

Later in 1661, Kozhikode joined a coalition led by the Dutch to defeat the Portuguese and Cochin and conducted a number of successful campaigns. As a result of the Kew Letters, the Dutch settlements on the Malabar Coast were surrendered to the British in 1795 in order to prevent being overrun by the French. Dutch Malabar remained with the British after the conclusion of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, which traded the colony with Bangka Island.

Mysore occupation and settlement negotiations
It was in 1732, at the invitation of the chief of Palakkad, Mysore forces marched to Kerala for the first time. They appeared again in 1735, and in 1737 they raided the Zamorin's frontier outposts. In 1745, the Mysore forces fought three battles with the Kozhikode warriors. In 1756 they invaded Kozhikode for the fifth time. The chief of Palakkad had placed himself under the protection of the King of Mysore, agreeing to pay an annual tribute of 12,000 Fanams. The Faujdar of Dindigul, Hyder Ali, sent Mukhdam Sahib, with 2000 cavalry, 5,000 infantry, and 5 guns to Kerala. The Zamorin tried to buy off the enemy by promising (Treaty, 1756) to refrain from molesting Palakkad and pay 12 lakhs of Rupees for the expenses of the expedition. However the Zamorin was not able pay anything to Hyder Ali. In 1766, 12,000 Mysore forces under Hyder Ali marched to Malabar from Mangalore. Mysore's intentions were made easy by the help they received from the Muslims in Malabar. Ali Raja of Cannanore - a Muslim ruler in northern Kerala - also helped the invading forces. The Mysore army was able to conquer northern Kerala up to Cochin with relative ease. Hyder Ali inflicted a major setback on the Kozhikode warriors at Perinkolam Ferry on the Kotta River. As Mysore edged closer to the outer reaches of the city of Kozhikode, the Zamorin sent most of his relatives to safe haven in Ponnani - and from there to Travancore - and to avoid the humiliation of surrender committed self-immolation by setting fire to his palace at Mananchira (27 April). Hyder Ali absorbed Malabar district to his state.

But as soon as the Haider Ali marched to Coimbatore, Nair rebellions broke out in Malabar. Some members of the Zamorin family rebelled against the Muslim occupiers. This included the Eralpadu Krishna Varma with his nephew Ravi Varma. The princes were aided by the English East India Company. In 1768 the Zamorin prince was restored in Kozhikode, agreeing to pay an annual tribute to Mysore. For nearly six years, till 1774 nothing was hear of Hyder Ali. In 1774, Mysore forces under Srinivasa Rao occupied the city of Kozhikode. The prince retired to Travancore in a native vessel. The baton of resistance now passed to his nephew Ravi Varma. Ravi Varma helped the Company occupy Kozhikode in 1782. By the Treaty of Mangalore, concluded in 1784, Malabar was restored to Mysore. In 1785 the oppression of revenue officers led to a rebellion by the Mappilas of Manjeri. As a reward for aiding to put down the rebels, and partly as an incentive, Tipu Sultan settled upon Ravi Varma a pension and a jaghir in 1786. The peace was soon broken and Tipu sent 6,000 troops under Mon. Lally to Kerala.

In Lord Cornwallis, invited the Kerala chiefs to join him in 1790, promising to render them in future entirely independent of Mysore and to retain them upon reasonable terms under the protection of the Company. Prince Ravi Varma met General Meadows at Trichinopoly and settled with him the terms of the Kozhikode's cooperation. After the Third Mysore War (1790-92), Malabar was placed under the control of the Company by the Treaty of Seringapatam.

In the settlement negotiations with the Joint Commission in 1792, the Zamorin proved recalcitrant. To pressure him, a portion of his former territories (Payyanadu, Payyormala, Kizhakkumpuram, Vadakkampuram and Pulavayi) was leased to the ruler of Kurumburanadu as manager for the East India Company. Finally, after prolonged negotiations, the hereditary territory of the Zamorin, together with the coin mint and the sea customs, was leased back to him. He was also temporarily given jurisdiction over the petty rulers and, as a mark of the Zamorin's "exceptional" position in Malabar, the revenue fixed for Beypore, Parappanadu and Vettattunadu was to be paid through him. As previously noted, these tax-payment and jurisdictional arrangements were terminated later and the Zamorin of Kozhikode became a mere pensioned landlord receiving the "malikhana". On July 1, 1800 Malabar was transferred to the Madras Presidency. On November 15, 1806 was executed the agreement upon which rested the future political relations between the Zamorin of Ko zhikodeand the English.

Governance
The hereditary chiefs, more or less independent in their region, acknowledged the overlordship of the Zamorin in Kozhikode. The "local magnates" were dependent on the Zamorin of Kozhikode. Women were not allowed to be the ruler of Kozhikode, and the oldest male member traced the female becomes the next Zamorin.

The Zamorin was assisted in the work of government by four hereditary chief ministers called Sarvadhi Karyakkar and number of ministers called Karyakkar and Polttis. Adhikaris, Thalachennavars, Achanmar and temple functionaries also belonged to the later group. The Karyakkar were appointed and removed by the Zamorin. Zamrin had a naval fleet which was commanded by Kunjali Marakar. There were ritual specialists like Hindu priests of the palaces, astrologers etc. as well as various occupational groups like physicians, weavers, and militiamen all of whom were attached to the royal establishment.

Sarvadhi Karyakkar

 * 1) Mangattachan - the prime minister
 * 2) Tinayancheri Elayatu
 * 3) Dharmottu Panikkar - the instructor-in-arms who commanded the forces
 * 4) Varakkal Paranambi - treasury and accounts

Shah Bandar Koya
Shah Bandar Koya (sometimes Khwaja, popularly known as the Koya of Kozhikode, the port commissioner) was a privileged administrative position in Kozhikode. The Shah Bandar was the second most important official in most Asian polities after the ruler.

According to legends, it was a merchant from Muscat, Oman who induced to the Zamorin to the conquer Valluvanadu. The Koya was subsequently given the [Persian] title "Shah Bandar" by the Zamorin of Kozhikode. He is also given all the privileges and dignities of a Nair chief, jurisdiction over all the Muslims residing in the city of Kozhikode, the right to receive small presents from the Iluvas the Kammalans and the Mukkuvans whenever the Zamorin conferred any honours on them on ceremonial occasions.

Trade at port Kozhikode was controlled by this Muslim officer. The port commissioner supervised the customs on the behalf of the king, fixed the prices of the commodities and collected the share to the treasury. It is recorded that when a vessel reaches the port the commissioner along with another officer called "Farakan" would take a list of the goods and fix its prices.

Revenue and trade
The sources of revenue were,


 * Taxing trade via ports
 * Cherikkal lands (royal estates, agricultural lands owned by the Zamorin)
 * Amkam (fee for permitting to held a trail by battle)
 * Chunkam (tolls and duties)
 * Ela (proceeds of lands confiscated)
 * Kola (forced contribution for emergencies)
 * Tappu (mulets/unconditional offences)
 * Pizha (fines)
 * Purushantaram (vassal succession fee)
 * Pulyatta pennu (the proceeds from the sale of out-casted women) etc.
 * Tirumulkalcha (gifts on various occasions)
 * Virinnamittu panam (amount for the royal feast)
 * Kannukku panam (amount presented for the death rituals) etc.

The Zamorin of Kozhikode derived greater part of his revenues by taxing trade. Trade - both coastal and overseas - was dominated the Muslims, though Jews, Chettis from Coromandel, and Banias from Gujarat all traded in and from Kozhikode. The mouros included natives (Mappilas) and Muslims from Arabia, Cairo, Turkey, Iraq and Persia. The foreigners dominated Indian Ocean, whereas as the Mappilas dominated the coastal trade and the trade to Pegu, Mergui, and Melaka.

The long-distance trade trade on the Malabar Coast was relatively centralised in the 15th century, the major port in this respect being Kozhikode. Kozhikode - despite being located at a geographically inconvenient spot - owed much of its prosperity of the Zamorins of Kozhikode. Trade was oriented in two directions: to the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf and the ports of Gujarat on the one hand, and to Melaka and the eastern Bay of Bengal shores on the other. The goods carried across the Arabian Sea included spices - pepper, ginger and cardamom - and textiles, and coconut products. The import into Kozhikode consisted of gold and copper, silver, horses (Cannanore especially), silk, aromatics other minor items. The Malabar coastal trade network encompassed commodities such as coconuts, coir, pepper, cardamom and rice. The rice was a major import item into Kerala from Canara and Coromandel. The local people were suppliers and consumers of goods in Kozhikde ports. The merchant guilds also played an active role in the maritime activities.

Military
Kozhikode's attitude towards the vanquished chiefs and European governors was generally marked by moderation. The whole conquered area was not ruled directly from Kozhikode but was ruled by a Kozhikode official (general, minister or Eradi prince). Sometimes, its former rulers allowed to rule as a vassal or feudatory.

Kozhikode forces consisted mainly of feudal levies, brought by the vassal rulers and chiefs. The former were divided into five (Commanders of the Five Thousand, of the Thousand, of the Five Hundred, of the Three Hundred, and of the Hundred) classes. Standing armies were kept at strategic locations like Kozhikode, Ponnani, Chavakkad, Chunganadu etc. Dharmottu Panikkar - the instructor in arms - commanded the warriors. The nominal cavalry was commanded by the Kuthiravattattu Nair. Nair militia was slow moving as compared to the cavalry, and always fought on foot. The use of firearms and balls had been known before the advent of the Portuguese. As gunpowder and shot made by the natives were poor quality, Kozhikode later employed the Europeans to manufacture them. The Mappilas formed the main corps of the musketeers, led by Thinayancheri Elayathu.

Kunjali Marakkars
The admirals of Kozhikode were the famous Kunjali Marakkars and the navy ships (Sambuks, Kappals, Patakus, Ferry Boats and Kettuvalloms) were manned by the Mappilas. Every port in Kozhikode had a Chief Pilot, whose duty it was to see the ships safely anchored from the sea pirates. The Mappila seamen was famous for their guerrilla warfare and hand-to-hand fighting on board. But, the ships were smaller, inferior in artillery, and incapable of joint/organised operations. Some assume that the Marakkars, before the beginning of the hostilities with the Portuguese, were traders of rice from Konkan. One Ismail Marakkar seems to be a prominent rice trader in Cochin. Even after the execution of Marakkar IV in 1600 AD, the title of the Kunjali Marakkar continued to exist for almost century.

The four key Kunjali Marakkars:

Coinage
The coins minted in Kozhikode included Panam (made of gold), Taram (made of silver) and Kasu (made of copper). Sixteen Kasu made one Taren, and sixteen Tarams made one Panam. The officer in-charge of the mint was called the "Goldsmith of Manavikraman". The royal mint was destroyed in 1766.

Ma Haun's table (1409) 


 * 1 Kochi Panam = 15 Tarams

Holzschuher's table (1503) 

Gold Coins
 * Kozhikode/Kannur/Kochi Panam [15 carats gold] 19 panams = 1 cruzado [Portuguese] or ducat [European]
 * Kollam Panam [19 carats gold] 12 panams = 1 cruzado [Portuguese] or ducat [European]

Silver Coins
 * [All Malabar] Taram - 16 Tarams = 1 panam

Copper Coins
 * Kollam Kasu - 15 Kasus = 1 panam

Coins in circulation in the pre-Portuguese kingdom of Kozhikode included gold coins called pagoda/pratapa, silver tangas of Gujarat, of Bijapur, of Vijayanagara and the larines of Persia, Xerafins of Cairo, the Venetian and the Genoan ducats. Other coins in circulation in the kingdom of Kozhikode - in sometime or other - included riyal ("irayal"), dirhma ("drama"), rupee ("uruppika"), rasi ("rachi"), and venadu chakram. Venadu coins - it seems - came to circulation after the Mysorean Interlude. Rasi later gave way to the kaliyuga rayan panam. Of kaliyuga rayan panam there were two varieties. One of these [issued by Cannanore] was afterwards imitated by the Zamorin called virarayan putiya panam, to distinguish it from the coin of Cannanore, which then became pazhaya panam. The four pazhaya panams made a rupee while three and half putiya panams equalled a rupee.

List of Kozhikode Samoodiris
Historical documents rarely mentions the individual names of the Zamorins of Kozhikode. However, it is generally assumed that Mana Vikrama, Mana Veda and Viraraya were the only names given to them. Portuguese historian Diogo de Couto was the first to attempt the construction of chronological scheme.

The following is a list of rulers of Kozhikode from "The Zamorins of Calicut" (1938) by K. V. Krishna Iyer. The first column (No.) gives the number of the Zamorin reckoned from the founder of the ruling family, based upon de Couto's assumption that there had been 98 Zamorins before the Zamorin reigning in 1610.

First Dynasty
The original seat of the aristocratic clan was Nediyiruppu and the head of the house was known as Nediyiruppu Mutta Eradi, a title enjoyed by the fifth in rank from the Zamorin. Under the Chera rulers of Tiruvanchikkulam the Mutta Eradi governed Ernad with the title of "Ernad Utaiyar". Later the clan abandoned its ancestral house and transferred its residence to the present day Kozhikode.

Note: Italic names only indicate the asterism under which the Zamorin is born

Second Dynasty
It seems that the original ruling family came to an end with the 114th Zamorin of Kozhikode. The 115th Zamorin, the first of the second ruling family, was the oldest of the princes adopted from Nileshwaram in 1706.

Zamorin family today
The Zamorins of Kozhikode returned to Kozhikode from Travancore by 1800. The Company reduced the Zamorins to the position of "pensioned" landlord by giving them an annual payment called mali khana. Payments (mali khana) were taken over by the Government of India after independence in 1947. The royal family has been trying to get a pension from the various governments over fifty years. The Kerala government decided to award a monthly pension to members of the royal family in 2013.

At present the Zamorin of Kozhikode is trustee to 46 Hindu temples (under Malabar Devaswom Board, as Madras H. R & C. E Act 1956) in northern Kerala, including five special grade temples, which generate a substantial revenue. The Zamorin also has a permanent seat on the Guruvayur Sree Krishna Temple's managing committee. Zamorin’s High School - situated overlooking the Tali temple - was established in 1877 and the family manages the Zamorin’s Guruvayurappan College.

The family has sought the government's help to preserve the artefacts in their private colllection. This collection include palm leaf manuscripts, swords, shields and other valuables. Malabar Devaswom Board Commissioner recently proposed to the Kerala state government that the temples under the hereditary (private) trustees  - such as the Zamorin - should be attached to the Board.