User:Maastricht Period3/sandbox

A Textbook of General Botany is an introduction to botany published in 1924 by Gilbert M. Smith (1885-1959) and co-authors James B. Overton, Edward M. Gilbert, Rollin H. Denniston, George S. Bryan, and Charles E. Allen.

Publication
There are five editions of A Textbook of General Botany. The first edition was published in July 1924, the second in September 1928, the third edition in April 1935, the fourth edition in 1948, and the fifth edition in 1953. All editions were published by the Macmillan Company (now the Macmillan Publishers).

The textbook underwent extensive revision in the third edition, incorporating new discoveries and scientific perspectives of the time. However, because the textbook was intended for an elementary course, the material was kept succinct. This resulted in certain topics being omitted, such as the chapter on Myxomycetes.

Between the fourth and the fifth editions, the content was again restructured along with the inclusion of numerous new illustrations. Much of the editorial work and rewriting of chapters is attributed to Smith.

Context
At the end of the 19th century, botany became a newly independent field that flourished as developments in physics, organic chemistry, and microscopy allowed the further study of plant molecular organization and what such information revealed about genetics, metabolism, and evolution. The field began to specialize extensively into sub-fields such as ecology, cytology, and morphology. Smith's discontent with the current textbooks was his motivation for writing A Textbook of General Botany as professor of elementary botany at the University of Wisconsin. The authors argued that the start of studying botany should be an observation of the structure and function of everyday plants, rather than studying complex distinctions between morphology, physiology, ecology, which were described as “artificially abstracted phases of the subject.” The aim of this textbook was to present the most recent knowledge of the field of botany as a concise unit. The authors defended that a familiarity with the subject matter was necessary in the development of science education; therefore, the textbook uses foundational material that is already recognizable to beginning students. General concepts are illustrated in this textbook by basic facts, avoiding over-technical terms. Additionally, the textbook was written in such a way that the content could be studied out of order without losing comprehensibility.

Many scientific and political developments during the 20th century influenced the writing of this book. A main shift in focus from qualitative description to experimentation took place in botany because of advancements in technology, such as microscopy, which allowed for the investigation of previously inaccessible concepts. For example, in 1910 scientists used labelled isotopes to study the biochemical pathways in plants, such as metabolism and photosynthesis, leading to advancements in gene technology. Also mentioned in this textbook is Thomas Hunt Morgan's 1911 recent confirmation of gene-chromosome theory of inheritance in chapters: the Reduction of the Number of Chromosomes and Variation and Inheritance. In 1912, geophysicist Alfred Wegener published his theory of continental drift, leading to a surge of comparative physiology and biogeographical studies; studies Smith incorporated into his chapter on the Geographic Distribution of Plants in North America. World War I (1914-1918) and the Second Industrial Revolution bolstered a botanical focus on economics in agriculture and industry to sustain the growing population. Consequently, the economic necessity of plants for lumber, food, and medicines is reflected in Smith's chapter The Economic Significance of Plants. Following the devastation of World War I, awareness of the human impact on the environment, such as worldwide deforestation, environmental herbicide accumulation, and climate change, became a serious topic of inquiry. Specifically within these topics, deforestation is referenced as a major issue in the sub-chapter on Forest Reserves. Additionally, the study of independent plant species and their anatomies shifted to the study of ecology and population genetics with the revival of Mendelian genetics in the 1930s, including studies on plant communities, succession, and energy flows. The textbook demonstrates this shift as focus is less on describing isolated species than discussing their biochemical mechanisms and distribution. Finally, expansion in population genetics led to the reconciliation of evolution with Mendelian genetics, forming the modern synthesis. The novel modern synthesis theory is a key aspect in Smith's chapter on Evolution, demonstrating the textbook's compilation of the most recent scientific knowledge.

Content
There are 35 chapters with two prefaces (to the first and third editions) and an index. Most chapters contain text describing plant features and functions. In general, organisms are presented in this textbook according to their seen degree of specialization (starting with green algae as the least specialized and concluding with the highly specialized angiosperms).

Chapters I -VII describe and illustrate the various basic parts of the plant (roots, stems, and leaves) and plant cells (cell walls, nucleus, and cytoplasm). Also discussed within the chapters are: cell functions and their importance; root functions and zone processes; primary and secondary growth; stem tissues and growth zones; stem forms; structure and functions of buds; leaf structure and tissues; leaf development and leaf formations; and variation.

Chapters VIII-XII describe: water importance and processes of movement through plants; behaviour of water; chloroplasts and their function; plastids; conditions for photosynthesis; photosynthesis; chlorophyll; carbohydrates; proteins and essential chemicals; translocation; metabolism; growth; pigments; tropisms; embryonic cells; cell division; and chromosomes.

Chapter XIII includes the classification of plants, the taxonomy and characteristics of certain groups. Generally evolved taxa are grouped into four: Thallophytes (fungi and algae), Bryophytes (liverworts and mosses), Pteridophytes (ferns and similar organisms), Spermatophytes (seed plants).

Chapters XIV-XXIV explain the nature and distribution of Thallophytes and Bryophytes as well as their structure, their formation, and the fusion of gametes. For bacteria, dormancy, economic aspects, nitrogen interactions, and bacterial biogeochemical cycle are described. However, blue-green algae (now called cyanobacteria) are described separately. The alternation of generations is described in the respective chapters on lichens, liverworts, and mosses.

Chapter XXV explains the significance and process for the separation of chromosomes in meiosis and the significance of the impact of the fusion of gametes on the resulting organism.

Chapters XXVI-XXIX expound upon Pteridophytes and Spermatophytes. The distribution, alternation of generations in detail, the structures and general life cycle are described for ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms. The distinguishing features between gymnosperms and angiosperms are explained as are pollination and the development of seeds.

Chapters XXX-XXXI instructs the reader on the nature, structure, and function of seeds and fruits. The classification of fruits based on how the ovules mature, an in-depth look at the processes of germination and the dispersal of seeds and fruit are explained. The different floral arrangements of monocotyledons and dicotyledons are described, and the main families of plants are explained and named after a prominent example of each family, to avoid using Latin terminology.

Chapters XXXII and  XXXIII discuss inheritance, variation, and evolution. These terms are elucidated as well as Mendel’s laws and their application to organisms. Additionally, the causal effects of chromosomes and genes on inheritance and variation are examined, as well as autopolypoidy, sex linkage and crossing over during meiosis, and the behaviour of genes. Mutations are mentioned briefly. A generalized overview of evolution is included. Different proofs of evolution are provided such as the similarity of structure and function in organisms, reproduction, acclimatization to abiotic factors, conflict of interests between organisms, coevolution and eusociality, and natural selection.

Chapters XXXIV and XXXV cover the geographic distribution of plants in North America, explaining the underlying factors for this variation and describing the different biomes. The last chapter focuses on the economic importance of plants, excluding bacteria, algae, and fungi, examining crop, medicinal, and lumber values of plants while summarizing a brief history of these applications. Lastly, a description of weeds and types of plant diseases is provided in addition to how they spread and methods of control.

Impact on the scientific community
A Textbook of General Botany was reviewed twice in the Botanical Gazette in response to the release of its succeeding editions. In both reviews, the textbook was approved as a tool for elementary botany for its “clear style, including much detail” and how it is “amply illustrated.” In fact, the textbook is noted as “a valuable contribution to the problem of presentation” by R.M. Holman et. al (1925). The text was commended on its contributions to Thallophytes studies and the inclusion of new forms of algae as they were discovered in the interim between editions. In addition, the textbook was also included as a demonstration of botanical developments by William H. Brown in his book The Plant Kingdom: Textbook of General Botany, where Smith is used as a scientific reference as well as a point of historical precedence. Overall, the textbook was used as an introduction to botany in universities across America, notably at the University of Wisconsin, where the author taught. Additionally, it also served as a field guide for contemporary botanists and as a reference in ensuing botany textbooks.

Additionally, Gilbert M. Smith contributed greatly to the field of phycology in several other journals, as evidenced in his contributions to The Freshwater Algae of the United States, Cryptogamic Botany, and the Manual of Phycology. All reviews of Smith’s journals return to his excellence in the field in reference to the detailed illustrations, the range of material, and the inclusion of new knowledge in his texts.

The modern view of the book
Several topics of this textbook are inconsistent with modern botany, such as adaptation, inheritance, variation, genetics, and the evolution and classification of fungi, bacteria, and lichens. Adaptation of organisms to their environment is characterized as one of the major biological obstacles of the time and is described with little reference to evolution, without distinguishing adaptation from adaptive trait. As the field of genetics was undergoing rapid changes at the time, in the textbook genetics is only briefly described without the inclusion of genetic experiments that are prevalent in modern genetics textbooks. The lack of extensive genetic knowledge also influenced the comprehension and acceptance of the theory of evolution, where common 21st century concepts like mutations and genetic drift were not included. Instead, the evidence for evolution was based on the observed origin of new races, facts of classification, facts of underlying homology, and the fossil record of extinct species. Moreover, classifications of plants into genera, families, orders, and classes were based on morphological homologies as opposed to the modern use of DNA analysis in phylogeny.

Additionally, fungi and algae are classified as Thallophytes, which were described as simple-structured plants because of their strong cell walls and the fact that they grow out of the soil. However, in 1969, fungi were categorized as a separate kingdom by Robert Whittaker as developments in organic chemistry led to the discovery that fungi do not undergo photosynthesis but, rather, are heterotrophs. Furthermore, a lichen is described in the text as a “peculiar being” formed by the intimate association of fungi and algae in a mutualistic relationship. In the 21st century, lichens are defined as composite organisms of cyanobacteria in a mutualistic relationship with the filaments of multiple fungi. Finally, bacteria are described in the textbook as the most minute of one-celled plants, while the development of microscopy and chemical analysis revealed that bacteria are not plants but are part of a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms.

Modern influence
A Textbook of General Botany by Smith is no longer used in schools due to advancements in the field that render some information insufficient or incorrect. Modern progress in botany is built off of many of the topics discussed in the textbook, but technological developments have aided in delineating certain areas such as plant chemical composition, classification, and phylogeny. However, due to his contributions to botany, Smith was honored in the establishment of the Gilbert Morgan Smith Medal, which is awarded by the US National Academy of Sciences “in recognition of excellence in published research on marine or freshwater algae.”

This textbook still is significant, however, as part of the Special Collections at the Maastricht University Library. The textbook is studied to reflect on the history of science, as textbooks are meant to be compilation of the most current knowledge of the time, as well as how the science was taught. This reflection can provide tools to understand how science has changed in order to see how science has advanced.