User:Madalibi/Qing dynasty

"One of the most successful imperial states the world has known."

Name
The Manchu name of the Qing is daicing, which comes from Mongolian daicin and means "warrior."


 * Giovanni Stary (1990), "The Meaning of the Word 'Manchu': A New Solution to an Old Problem." Central Asiatic Journal 34.1-2 (1990).


 * Pamela Kyle Crossley (1985). "An Introduction to the Qing Foundation Myth." Late Imperial China 6.2: 13-23.


 * Pei Huang (1990). "New Light on the Origin of the Manchus." HJAS 50.1: 239-82.


 * Idem (1984). "The Manchu Emperor 'Abahai': Analysis of an Historiographic Mistake." Central Asiatic Journal 28.3-4 (1984): 296-99.


 * Samuel M. Grupper (1989). "Manchu Patronage and Tibetan Buddhism During the First Half of the Ch'ing Dynasty." Journal of the Tibet Society 4 (1989): 47-75


 * Bao Ming 鲍明 (2005). "Da Qing guohao ciyuan ciyi shitan" 大清国号词源词义试探. Nei Menggu minzu daxue xuebao 内蒙古民族大学学报 31.2：##-##.


 * Wang Zhonghan (2000). "Manxue yanjiu zhong de jige wenti" 满学研究中的几个问题. Guoxue yanjiu 国学研究 [In Wang Zhonghan's Qingshi yukao 清史余考].


 * Feng Sheng 冯升 (1933). "Manzhou mingcheng de zhongzhong tuice" 满洲名称之种种推测. Dongfang zazhi 东方杂志 1933.3 (3.17?): 61-74. 大体而言，冯文罗列了11种不同说法:
 * 一为清亮说，乃罗斯(J．Ross)《满洲人》中语，以满、清二字通用为依据，“满”即“清”，实为大谬
 * 二为勇猛之义，为 Ichimura Sanjirō 市村瓒次郎 (1864-1947), "Shinchō kokugō hō" 《清朝国号考》中所提出，认为蒙(mong)与满(man)同源，故说满洲与蒙古同名，不免为妄说；
 * 三为因地产名珠而名满珠，乃史禄国(S．M．Shirokogoroff)《满洲人之社会组织》之说，显系误会；
 * 四为因夷酋得救于猪而得名(同上)，实属臆断；
 * 五为满仲之重出，亦市村氏之说，直是捏造；
 * 六为由肃慎音转，乃乾隆《满洲源流考》中语，实则女真与肃慎二字不可音转；
 * 七为由勿吉靺鞨音转，亦市村氏说，略嫌牵强；
 * 八为由满节音转，市村氏尤重之，亦近附会；
 * 九为由咄(头目)而名，见哥尔斯基(V．Gorsky，O Proihozdbnie etc．)，本于《隋书·室韦传》与《金史国语解》，或与乌珠(满语uju，汉译为头)为不无可能；
 * 十为出自梵文“文殊师利”，本《满洲源流考》之说. 章太炎(《与弟子吴承仕论满洲旧事书》与《清建国别记》)、汪荣宝(见萧一山《清代通史》上编引)，稻叶君山(《清朝全史》上册与《满洲发达史》及《满洲国号之由来》见《朝鲜》四号，昭和九年1934，4)等人多宗之；
 * 十一为出自建州女真尊号“满住”，唐邦治首创其说，孟森继之，并详加考证，是满洲之有满住尊号，犹汉人之有帝王、公侯爵秩也.
 * 冯先生的结论，认为满洲一词载于《满文老档》，绝非臆造. 汉字之满洲一词或起于努尔哈齐、皇太极期间，而满语之满洲一词必早见于前. 总之，满洲为民族名而非地名，殆无疑义.


 * Kanda Nobuo 神田信夫 (1972). "Manju kokugo ho" 满洲Manju国号考 (1972). In  Yamamoto Hakushi kanreki kinen tōyō shi ronsō 山本博士還曆記念東洋史論叢. Tōkyō : Yamakawa Shuppansha, 1972. Also translated into Chinese by Liu Shizhe and published in Minzu yanjiu 民族研究 (1990): 52-57.


 * Mitamura Taisuke 三田村泰助. 《满珠国成立过程のに考察》，刊于《清朝前史の研究》，1965年10月，《东洋史研究论丛》之十四，京都大学文学部[60年代中，Mitamura Taisuke 三田村泰助驳 Ichimura Sanjirō 市村瓒次郎否定满珠为满洲之说，认为满洲Manju一词乃是统一建州女真后努尔哈齐所建立的国名. 此后Oshibuchi Hajime 鸳渊一 (1896-?)、Ogawa Hiroto 小川裕人等均从之，似成定论. ]


 * Huang Zhangjian 黄彰建 (1967). "" 滿州國號考. Lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 歷史語言研究所集刊 37.


 * Li Shutong 李樹桐 (1974). "Qingdai guohao kao" 清代國號考. Huagang xuebao 華岡學報 8: 227-51.


 * Xue Hong 薛虹 and Liu Housheng 刘厚生 (1990). "Jiu Manzhou dang suoji da Qing jianhao qian de guohao" 旧满洲档所记大清建号前的国号. Shehui kexue jikan 社会科学辑刊 1990.2: 83—90. [Not convincing because it argues that Manzhou is a mispelling for Jianzhou.]
 * Jiang Meibiao 蔡美彪 (1987). "Da Qing jianhao qian de guohao, zuming yu jinian" 大清建号前的国号、族名与纪年. Lishi yanjiu 历史研究 1987.3: 133—46.
 * Wang Wenyu 王文郁 (1981). "Manzhou zucheng de youlai" 满洲族称的由来. Nankai shixue 南开史学, 1981.2: 231—44. [认为“满洲”汉译应为“神箭”之意与牛录(niru)有联系，聊备一说.]


 * Wang Hao 王昊 and Zhang Fubai 张甫白 (1996). "Manzhou mingcheng kaoshi" 满洲名称考释. Shixue jikan 史學集刊 1996.3: 29-34. [从上述诸说对满洲名称来源分析，认为满洲应是在东北地区出现代替女真的统一的民族名称，皇太极(清太宗)之所以用满洲而不用满珠，珠与州或洲音近，并用以名族，而成为新的族称. 是满洲名称问题有了新的认识. 然满洲与满珠只是汉译用词之略有差异，尚未考出满洲(满珠)名称之来源所自出，能否成为定说，似犹有待作进一步的探讨. ]

Rise of the Manchus
The Jurchens had been a people along the northeastern borders of Ming China. Jurchen unification and alliance with Mongols under Nurhaci. Early banner system. Declared himself Khan in 1616, with a reign title and a dynastic name: Jin. Meant a break with the Ming. Conquest of Liaodong. Seven Grievances (1618). Conquests. Hung Taiji's military campaigns (Korea, Hong Chengchou). Institution building, economy and trade. Formation of the Manchu state.

Consolidation

 * More use of Chinese officials; education of the emperor
 * Appealing to intellectuals: Boxue hongru, History of Ming, imperial patronage, Kangxi Zidian.
 * More wars and consolidation of borders: Galdan; Three Feudatories; Zheng Chenggong and Taiwan.

The eighteenth-century golden age

 * Yongzheng's fiscal and administrative reforms.
 * The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor
 * Southern Tours
 * Corruption (Heshen clique) and social problems (overpopulation, environment, extremely competitive society, etc.)
 * White Lotus Rebellion of 1796
 * Macartney Embassy of 1793

Internal rebellions
Miao Rebellion (1795-1806), Taiping Rebellion, Nien Rebellion, Panthay Rebellion, Dungan revolt (1862-1877), etc.

Self-strenghtening
Soon before his death in 1861, the Xianfeng Emperor named a committee of eight regents led by Manchu nobleman Sushun to supervise the reign of his young and only son the Tongzhi Emperor. Soon after the succession, however, the new emperor's mother, Empress Dowager Cixi, overthrew the regents and took control of the imperial government with the help of Prince Gong.

Prince Gong, who had negotiated the peace settlement with France and England after the Second Opium War, led the court's effort to modernize its diplomatic institutions. Under his regency (in common with Cixi), the Zongli Yamen, Superintendents of Trade, Maritime Customs Service were founded, and the Qing court began to accept international law.

Jiangnan Arsenal, Translation Bureau.

Government
System of nine ranks that dates to the end of the Han Dynasty. Government institutions developed before 1644, especially under Hung Taiji, who created important institutions like the Deliberative Council of high officials and the Lifan Yuan. Some were unique Manchu institutions, whereas others were inherited from the Ming dynasty. Some changes started in the 1840s and 1850s in response to external and domestic pressures.

Dyarchy applied to the regular bureaucracy, but not to Manchu institutions like the Imperial Household Department, the Imperial Clan Court, the Lifan Yuan, and high-level policymaking bodies like the Deliberative Council and the Grand Council.

The central government
When Hung Taiji proclaimed himself Emperor of the Qing dynasty in 1636, he established his capital in Mukden (Shenyang). The imperial capital was moved to Beijing in 1644 when Dorgon, who acted as regent for the Shunzhi Emperor, captured that city from the hands of rebel Li Zicheng. Beijing remained the Qing capital until the end of the dynasty, whereas Mukden became a secondary capital that was known as Shengjing 聖京.

The Court of Colonial Affairs
In addition to the six boards, there was a Court of Colonial Affairs (Manchu: Tulergi golo be darasa jurgan; Mongol: γadaγdu mongγul un törü-ji jasaqu jabudal-un jamun) unique to the Qing government. This institution was established to supervise the administration of Tibet and the Mongolian lands. As the empire expanded, it took over administrative responsibility of all minority ethnic groups living in and around the empire, including early contacts with Russia—then seen as a tribute nation. The office had the status of a full ministry and was headed by officials of equal rank. However, appointees were at first restricted only to candidates of Manchurian and Mongolian ethnicity. To the south, Manchuria was separated from China proper by the Inner Willow Palisade, a ditch and embankment planted with willows intended to restrict the movement of the Han Chinese into Manchuria, as the area was off-limits to the Han until the Qing started colonizing the area with them later on in the dynasty's rule.

The Zongli Yamen
Even though the Board of Rites and the Court of Colonial Affairs performed some duties of a foreign office, they fell short of developing into a professional foreign service. This stemmed from the traditional imperial world view of seeing China as the centre of the world and viewing all foreign countries as tributary states unworthy of equal diplomatic status. It was not until 1861 — a year after losing the Second Opium War to the Anglo-French coalition — that the Qing government bowed to foreign pressure and created a proper foreign affairs office known as the Zongli Yamen. The office was originally intended to be temporary and was staffed by officials seconded from the Grand Council. However, as dealings with foreigners became increasingly complicated and frequent, the office grew in size and importance, aided by revenue from customs duties which came under its direct jurisdiction.

The Imperial Household Department
The Imperial Household Department (Ch: Neiwufu 內務府; Ma: Dorgi baita be uheri kadalara yamun) was unique to the Qing dynasty. It was established before the Qing defeat of the Ming, but it became mature only after 1661, following the death of the Shunzhi emperor and the accession of his son Kangxi. The Department's primary purpose was to manage the internal affairs of the Qing imperial family and the activities of the inner palace (in which tasks it largely replaced eunuchs), but it also played an important role in Qing relations with Tibet and Mongolia, engaged in trading activities (jade, ginseng, salt, furs, etc.), managed textile factories in the Jiangnan region, and even published books. The Department was manned by booi (Chinese: baoyi 包衣), or "bondservants," from the Upper Three Banners. By the nineteenth century, it managed the activities of at least 56 subagencies.

The economy
Economic devastation followed by rehabilitation. Agriculture dominant: dryland cropping in the north, wetland cultivation in the south. Commercial expansion and monetization of the economy in the 18th century. Shift from servile to contractual labor in agriculture. Native banks. Densification of rural markets and increase in interregional and national trade. Foreign trade. Money supply. Economic expansion of the 18th century followed by crises in the 19th.

Cultural and religious life
Imperial examination system; filial piety and various rituals; festivals; city life.

Literature and the arts

 * Literature: Cao Xueqin's Dream of the Red Chamber, Pu Songling's Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, Yuan Mei, Ji Yun.
 * Painting: Bada Shanren.

Philosophical trends
Gu Yanwu, Wang Fuzhi, Yan Ruoju, Dai Zhen, Han learning, Mao Qiling, Huang Zongxi, Lü Liuliang, evidential learning, New Text Confucianism

Jesuit science at the early Qing court
Controversies over astronomy (Yang Guangxian, Adam Schall von Bell, etc.)

Medicine
Warm-factor disorders; centrality of Suzhou; anatomy, Wang Qingren, medicine for women, missionary medicine; translations from Japanese and Western works. Government activities: anti-smallpox campaigns, publications like the Gujin Tushu Jicheng and Yizong Jinjian.

Decline of acupuncture and European fascination for it.

Variolation, which had been invented in the late Ming at latest, was deployed in various court-sponsored campaigns against smallpox. Also mention arrival of cholera in 1820s and plague epidemics in Yunnan and then Hong Kong in the mid 1890s.

Jesuit works on Western medicine. Protestant medical missions. Translations of medical books in the late Qing. Benjamin Hobson.

Medicine for women. Nourishing life. Popular ritual treatments.

Menghe medicine (Scheid), "Confucian doctors" (Ruyi 儒醫), medical primers.

Medicine and hygiene in the late Qing.

The Qing legacy
Population, multi-ethnic empire, decline? Transition to China as a nation-state and to China's modern territories.