User:Madni42/sandbox

Question 1.a: Overall structure and functions of a human cell Cell is the basic and fundamental unit of life. More than trillions of cells are present in a human body that differ from each other in shape, size & their morphology. However, all cells have 3 parts common in them, i.e. Plasma Membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. the plasma membrane/cell membrane is the outer boundary of cell that separates the inner environment from outer environment. cytoplasm is a liquid containing different organelles within it & nucleus is the site of protein biogenesis. The nucleus also contains hereditary material that transfers from parents to offspring during inheritance. Question 1b: Overall structure and functions of skeletal muscle tissue: The cells that combine to perform similar functions are termed tissues, the skeletal muscle tissues contain cells that are collectively joined to skeleton by tendons. They help in the movement and locomotion therefore; they are also called voluntary tissues. Different skeletal tissues combine with each other by the network of blood vessels. They aid in the maintenance of posture, permits movements, and stabilizes the bones/joints so that heat is generated. Question 2a: Hyperplasia When there is an increased mitosis, the cells increase in their number and this condition is called hyperplasia. It is of 2 types i.e. compensatory & hormonal. Question 2b: Hypertrophy Increase in size/volume of cells is called hypertrophy. It results in the increase of cystol and other components of cytoplasm. Question 2c: Atrophy Opposite to hypertrophy, this condition decreases the size of the cell. Question 2d: Metaplasia The substitution of a cell with a less differentiated cell is called metaplasia. The cell that is transformed may become a cancerous cell if stimulus aint removed. Question 3a.: Organisation: Organisation is a hierarchy of complex systems in biological terms. It begins with an atom and leads to biosphere which is the higher level of organisation. Question 3b: Processes of metabolism: The conversion of food into energy is due to the process called metabolism. It may be anabolism or catabolism. Question 3c: Nutrition The study of one’s diet and determination of nutrients present in their food is called nutrition. There are two types of nutrients present in diet, i.e. macronutrients and micronutrients. Question 3d: Biological Malnutrition It happens on eating too much or too little food by an individual. The malnourished people are especially those who have eaten less, and they might be suffering from essential vitamins or nutrients that their body desires. Question 3e: Inheritance When certain traits of parents are transmitted to their children, it is called inheritance. Generally, the human cell consists of 46 chromosomes;23 of which are inherited from one’s mother and 34 are inherited from one’s father. Question 3f: Ageing The process of getting older i.e. the occurrence of changes in the structure and function of one’s body is explained through the process of ageing. Till death, the process of ageing follows and there is a decline in the fertility of an individual. Question 4. Briefly describe the six (6) levels of structural organisation of the human body in order from the smallest structural unit to the largest. The six levels of organisation are described as below: Cell: it is the smallest and fundamental unit of life. Tissues: various calls that are supposed to perform same functions are collectively called tissues. Organ: an organ works when different tissues unite to perform same function Organ system: it is made up of different organs performing same function. Organism: the union of various organ systems constitute an organism. Population: different individuals living at a certain place at a certain time makes up a population Question 5a: Briefly describe the concept of homeostasis in your own words The regulation of internal environment of a body from the harms and fluctuations of external environment is called homeostasis. It is of different kinds, i.e. thermoregulation, osmoregulation, etc. Question 5b: Briefly describe the relationship between homeostatic imbalance and disease The imbalance of homeostatic activity may often result in diseases. As the normal homeostasis of a body is prone to work against the harm and fluctuations of external environment, and if this process doesn’t work, the body wont has a process to maintain its internal environment and may catch diseases. The example of it can be found by diabetes mellitus in which the glucose level and insulin are not properly regulated in the body. Question 5c: Briefly explain the process of body temperature regulation through behavioural and physiological mechanisms.

The kind of homeostasis where the temperature is regulated i.e. 37 degrees Celsius is maintained inside body than the temperature outside. Question 6: Briefly describe the structure and functions of the cardio-vascular system It may also be known as blood vascular system .it comprises of a network of blood vessels that take the blood to different parts of body and a heart that pumps blood. Moreover, it is also responsible for the deliverance of oxygen & nutrients to the rest of the body. Question 7: Briefly describe the structure and functions of the respiratory system It begins from nose, throat & larynx, these are the organs that are located outside chest cavity and comprises upper respiratory tract. Similarly, the trachea, lungs & bronchioles are located inside chest cavity and comprises lower respiratory tract. Its functions involve the communication & smelling, it regulates the temperature in the body & delivers oxygen. It is also involved in the removal of wastes, etc. Question 8: How does the respiratory system work with the cardio-vascular system? The movement of blood & oxygen throughout body occurs due to combined working of circulatory & respiratory system. To get the air into the lungs, trachea, bronchi & bronchioles play a role. 2 types of blood are affiliated to lungs i.e deoxygenated blood that comes from heart via pulmonary vessels and oxygenated blood that leaves the lungs through pulmonary veins. Question 9: Briefly describe the structure and functions of the muscular system Muscle tissues, cardiac and smooth tissues together function to form a skeletal system. It is, then, involved in the maintenance of posture, it aids the mobility, controls heartbeat and through it, the food goes to digestive system Question 10: Briefly describe the structure and functions of the skeletal system. The skeletal muscles are connected to each other by connective tissues called endomysium. Fascicules are also connected to each other by perimysium which is also a connective tissue. Both of these connective tissues combine to produce tendons that joins muscle with bone. They maintain posture & help in mobility, it stabilizes joins and aid the generation of heat. Question 11: Briefly describe the interactions between the muscular system and skeletal system in maintaining the posture and balance of the body The bones and muscles meet at a point called joint. Tendons facilitate this meeting of muscle and joint. The muscles that are attached to the bones are termed as skeletal muscles. The skeletal muscle’s genesis point is a fixed bone. The insertion occurs at a moving bone. The energy is released in the form of ATP when neurotransmitters instruct to move. It is ATP that results inn the contraction/shortening. When shortening of muscle occurs, matching bone is pulled at insertion. It further shortens the articulation of angle between bones. When the signal is provided to the muscle to relax, it expands moveable bone it its original position. Question 12: Briefly describe the structure and functions of the endocrine system. It comprises of many glands, the brain is an organ comprising of different parts such as hypothalamus, pineal glands & pituitary glands. The neck contains thyroid and parathyroid glands. The adrenal glands are located over kidneys and ovaries and testes for women and men respectively, are situated in the pelvic area. It is involved in the regulation of various functions such as growth and development, the heartbeat, appetite, blood pressure, etc. Question 13: Briefly describe the structure and functions of the nervous system CNS includes brain and spinal cord. It is involved in the interpretation of emotions, thinking, it controls emergency situations, etc. it may facilitate the process of digestion, respiration, etc. Question 14: How do the endocrine and nervous systems work together to act as a communication system for the human body? The major purpose of interpretation of stimuli is our protection. It connects with the endocrine system so that hormones are released that influence the emotions & behavior. Question 15: Briefly describe the structure and functions of the digestive system The system starts at the mouth/oral cavity containing teeth for the grinding if food and tongue for kneading & adding saliva on food. The throat or pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and intestines are also included in digestive system. As the name suggests, the major purpose of it is to digest goo & absorb nutrients. These absorbed nutrients are taken up to perform essential functions such as growth, etc. Question 16: Briefly describe the structure and functions of the urinary system The urinary system contains kidneys, renal pelvis, bladder,ureter and urethra. Its function involved the filtration and elimination of harmful & chemical waste from blood, urine. It also regulates the amount of electrolyte present in fluids and maintains pH in body. Question 17: Briefly describe how the urinary system, respiratory system, digestive system and integumentary system contribute to excretion of waste products from the human body Undoubtedly, major excretion is performed by urinary system, but other body systems are also involved in the excretion of something. Such as, the skin also called integumentary system is involved in the elimination of waste products, such as extra salts, water, pus, etc. the pile pigment is secreted by liver & intestine. The carbondioxide is eliminated by lungs in the process of respiration. All these excretions can, however, only occur if the urinary system performs its function efficiently. Question 18: Briefly describe the structure and functions of the male and female reproductive systems. It comprises of a vagina, fallopian tubes, uterus & ovaries. The vagina is expandable, and it may shrink due to its muscular wall. It produces fertilized eggs so that baby can be developed moreover, special structures in the female reproductive system allows male sperm to meet the egg of female. Question 19: Briefly describe the interaction of the reproductive and endocrine systems The reproductive system is regulated by hormones of pituitary gland, adrenal cortex & gonads, the Gonadotropin releasing hormone is secreted during puberty by hypothalamus that causes the production of anterior pituitary gland & stimulate & release follicle stimulating hormone or the hormone that causes luteinization. Question 20: Briefly describe the structure and functions of the integumentary system Skin is the integumentary system present in the humans. It consists of an outer layer called epidermis, middle layer, and hypodermis. Moreover, it contains glands, possess hair, and have nails. The skin works to protect the inner body environment from the external environment. it helps in the temperature maintenance and synthesize vitamin D. Question 21: Briefly describe the structure and functions of the lymphatic system It is composed of lymphatic tubes and lymphoid organs. The important function of it is the absorption, maintenance of bodily fluids & to eliminate harmful waste. Question 22: Describe the three (3) lines of defense provided by our immune system The defense liners involve body processes such as physical and chemical barriers, the innate reactions & the response towards adaptation. Question 23: Briefly describe the structure of the human eye and how the eyes contribute to our vision The three coats inside human eye protects and encloses the transparent humor, lens, and vitreous body. The outer layer of eye is made up of cornea and sclera that are containing choroid, ciliary bodies & iris. The middle coat contains the supply of blood that goes to eyes and run from back to front. For vision, photoreceptors convert light energy to electrical signals. These signals when reach brain are converted into images that make up the vision we see. This whole process requires milliseconds to complete. Question 24: Briefly describe the structure of the human ear and how the ears contribute to our hearing Human ear contains outer, inner, and middle ear. The ear canal is separated from middle ear’s tympanic chamber that is air-filled by an eardrum. The 3 ossicles that transmits the sound waves are present in the middle ear and pharyngeal aperture of eustachian tubes connect them to throat at nasopharynx. The organ called otolith, the utricle, & saccule along with vestibular system’s semicircular canals & the auditory system’s cochlea all are residing in the inner ear. It helps in the balancing and hearing of sounds. It helps in the attainment of equilibrium by detecting sound waves. Question 25: Explain the ear mechanism that controls the balance and equilibrium of the body The maintenance of balance and equilibrium occurs due to the two components that are present in the inner ear. The semicircular canals connect with each other as gyroscopes, with each canal perpendicular to each other. It I further connected to cochlea & vestibular canal hence, the semicircular canals, vestibular canals, both works unified to keep balance in the body. Question 26: Briefly describe organs associated with and processes underpinning the sense of smell in humans The olfactory nerves are present in the nasal cavity that contains the olfactory nerves, it executes the translation of odors into impulses, this is the main phenomenon behind smelling. As there are numerous features & molecules that can sense odor, the humans can therefore, sense and smell wide variety of fragments. Question 27: Briefly describe organs associated with and processes underpinning the sense of taste in humans. A cluster of around fifty to hundred receptor cells are located on taste buds which are then located on tongue or soft palate or epiglottis. They might also be located on esophagus, throat, & transmits the sense of Taste. However the primary organ for this function is tongue but undoubtedly, there are various other sensory organs that are also containing taste buds receptors. Question 28: The major organ systems and their vital components are given in the following table. Identify one (1) common disorder affecting each organ or component. Briefly describe identified disorder, problem or complaint and discuss common signs and symptoms of each of them. Organ System	Organs / Components	Common disorders, problems and complaints	Provide a brief description of the disorder, problem, or complaint and discuss common signs and symptoms Cardiovascular system	Heart	Congestive cardiac failure	Shortness of breath, edema and fatigue. Blood vessels	atherosclerosis	Shortness of breath, cramps. Blood	angina	Shortness of breath, abdominal pain Digestive system	Stomach	GERD	Chest pain, Difficulty swallowing. Large intestine	Appendicitis. Nauseous, constipation Organ System	Organs / Components	Common disorders, problems and complaints	Provide a brief description of the disorder, problem or complaint and discuss common signs and symptoms Small intestine	Celiac disease	Diarrhea, bleeding. Special senses	Eyes	Glaucoma	Eye pain, red eyes Ears	Earache	Ear pain, jaw pain. Nose	sinusitis	Stuff nose, cough, bad breath. Endocrine system	Thyroid	Hashimoto's thyroiditis	Constipation, hair-loss. Pituitary gland	Acromegaly	Swollen hands & feet. Female reproductive system	Ovary	Endometriosis. Pain in lower abdomen, sickness, diarrhea. Uterus	polyps	Bleeding from rectum, iron deficiency. Male reproductive system	Testis	Epididymitis. Painful urination, blood in semen. Prostate	prostatitis	Severe pain around penis or anus, etc., pain while peeing. Respiratory system	Lungs	Asthma	Shortness of breath, wheezing Integumentary system	Skin	eczema	Dry skin, presence of patches. Nervous system	Brain	Alzheimer’s disease	Memory loss, problems while coping with issues Spinal cord	Herniated discs. Neck pain, weakness Musculoskeletal system	Bone	Osteoporosis	Back pain, easily breakable bones, Muscles	Myasthenia gravis	Visual issues Joint	Arthritis	Swelling, redness Urinary system	Kidneys	chronic kidney disease	Weight loss, itchy skin Urinary bladder	Cystitis	Pain while peeing, pain in lower abdomen Lymphatic system	Lymph nodes and vessels	Filariasis	Itchy skin, pain in abdomen Spleen	splenic rupture	Stomach pain, confusion Question 29a: Dental Caries The damaged holes in the teeth that occur because of presence of germs. Or if a person snacks a lot or take beverages, etc. he might catch dental caries. Question 29b: Periodontal Disease It is the caused by plaque that occur due to poor flossing. It results in an irritation, difficulty in chewing food & might often lead to bleeding. Question 29c: Halitosis The presence of sulphur producing bacteria are the main cause of halitosis. However, some specific meals like smoking, poor hygiene etc. may also lead to this disease. The cause of disease determines the preventive measure. Question 29d: Dry Mouth The cause of it includes Sjogren’s syndrome or HIV?AIDS. it may also be caused due to diabetes,etc. snoring or breathing through one’s mouth may also dry their mouth and tobacco and alcohol consumption is another cause of it. Question 29e: Denture Stomatitis It is an infection in the mouth caused by yeast or fungus. Mainly due to higher concentration of microorganism candida. The palatal & gingival mucosa is affected by this infection and is often not communicable. It sores the mouth. Question 30: Imagine that you are going to administer a Paracetamol tablet as a pain killer to a resident prior to providing wound care. Briefly describe the cautions and contraindications you would look for in relation to the medication being administered The contraindications involve that it is not used for patients with chronic liver issues, or whose body reacts to the tablet. For patients who are allergic to it and when the body of a patient is in shock. The caution involves assurance that the patient is neither allergic to it nor it is a patient of liver, the tablet is used only if it is needed, and it is taken up if the patient has not consumed it before. Question 31: You are required to insert a naso gastric tube for a resident. Briefly describe the cautions and contraindications you will look for prior to using Xylocaine jelly as a lubricant during tube insertion It is only used on patients and residents who have a history of its consumption. Patients with other medical conditions like anemia etc. are not to be given this medicine. It must only be used at place of sepsis where there is an increased risk of absorption. Question 32: To whom would you refer any potentially serious issues in relation to the physical health status of a client? Briefly describe how an enrolled nurse should refer an identified variation from normal functioning of a person to a healthcare team member. By considering factors that may have contributed to the observed variations. The next course of action can be determined by calculating the level of risk associated with this variance. Situations should be confirmed with an appropriate health practitioner, and if there are any potentially significant difficulties, an ambulance should be summoned. Organizational policies, procedures, and protocols are recommended as part of your duty of care to keep the people you care for safe. Furthermore, any specific risks should be specified in the person's care plan or other paperwork. Question 33: Briefly describe the physical, mental and emotional causes of disease The physical causes include bacteria, viruses, microorganisms and parasites, fungi, etc. The mental/emotional causes involve, stress, trauma, the genetic issues, and biology of a cell. Question 34a: Pathogens The pathogens are known to interfere with the transmission, replication and taking part in parthenogenesis, etc. Question 34b: Inherited Genetic Condition When an altered/mutated gene is transmitted to offspring, it may lead to inherited genetic conditions. Question 34c: Trauma Trauma can occur to a person emotionally as well as physically. The common indicators of trauma are lethargy, shock, etc. a long-term trauma may lead to anxiety, panic attacks that are hard to bear. Question 34d: Toxins Enzymes are often harmed by toxins. They impair a wide range of functions including the production of hemoglobin in blood. Question 34e: Environmental Factors Harmful chemical, biological or physical agents that combine and are present in the environment as per natural or artificial phenomenon have an ability to effect the health of people who are exposed to it. Question 34f: Nutrition Factors There are various nutrients present such as micronutrients and macronutrients. Question 34g: Impacts caused by health interventions (Iatrogenic) The occurs in surgery, incorrect therapy or prescribing a wrong medicine may cause iatrogenic illness. Question 34h: Degenerative changes in vital organ systems Due to the long process of evolution of a degenerative cell affecting tissues or organs may be consequence of degenerative changes in vital organ systems. Question 34i: The loss of normal control mechanisms such as the uncontrolled growth of cancer cells Cancer is a kind of disease of uncontrolled growth and proliferation in which cells have developed the ability to divide endlessly after escaping the body's regular growth control mechanisms. Question 35a: Registered Nurse The responsibility of a registered nurse if to observe and document the conduction, to physically examine the patient and assist him with the medicine administration, however she might be expose to certain viruses, and might have to perform a long-hour duty. Question 35b: Enrolled Nurse The enrolled nurse has responsibility to aid the patient in his daily activities, to evaluate the changes in the heath of patient. However, in case of emergency, she cant work along as she has to be advised by a registered nurse before she can do something which is a limitation. Question 35c: General Practitioner General practitioner examines the patients & diagnose & treat them for variety of diseases, however the ego, pressure from peers and availability of specialists are some of the limitations Question 36: Using appropriate anatomical and medical terminology, briefly describe what parameters you should consider when undertaking a respiratory assessment and assessment of the Musculo-skeletal system (Hint: what should you look for and what measurements should you undertake?). The respiratory assessment involves the examination of breathing rate, chest is evaluated to look for any variation, the inquiry regarding the shortness of breath, determination of pulse and blood pressure along with the examination of oxygen saturation. The Musculo skeletal system assessment involves the examination from all sides, looking for deformities, abnormalities & limitations in motion & skin changes. Question 37: Briefly describe appropriate health care strategies when a person is presented with moderate to severe breathing difficulty and wheezing In that case, the person is made to sit upright then he is given 5 puffs via a puffer. After that, patient is observed for 4-5 min to check if he has gotten better, if not, the ambulance is called immediately. References Lisa A. Urry, J. R. (2014). Campbell Biology (11th Revised Edition). Patricia A Stockert, R. B. (2016). Fundamentals of Nursing - E-Book. Samantha Fowler, R. R. (2013). Concepts of Biology. James Wise, Rebecca Roush, and Samantha Fowler.