User:Mahmoua4/sandbox

Article Evaluation:

Hornwort Articles:
 * The article stays on topic and only discusses topics related to the hornwort
 * Not all the references have links that lead back to the articles/website
 * Some of the claims are not referenced with a [citation needed] next to them
 * The information is a little outdated with most references dating over ten years
 * Evolutionary history section is small and incomplete, the article also doesn't mention whether the evolutionary history and classification was based on molecular data or morphology
 * Most the discussion in the talk page is about what hornworts look like
 * The article lacks visual aids on what the plants and different parts of it look like
 * This article is part of the wikiproject plants

Charophyta Vegetative propagation
 * The description, cell structure and reproduction sections need to be expanded.
 * Most of the sources are very old, I want to update them as well as update the article with any new findings from newer sources.
 * Only has two old source which tells me this article is not as extensive as it could be.
 * I want to expand on the types of vegetative reproduction.
 * I also would like to discuss the evolutionary history and significance of the process as well as its benefits and shortcomings.\

Draft:

Plant Propagation is the process of plant reproduction of a species or cultivar, and it can be sexual or asexual. Over the years, horticulturalists have developed asexual propagation techniques that use vegetative plant parts, to replicate plants in a way that often occur naturally. Vegetative propagation is generally associated with juvenility; generally, the more juvenile the specimen, the easier it is to propagate vegetatively.

While most sexually reproducing plants can self-cross, most plants that undergo vegetative reproduction are perennial woody outcrossers. Prevention of sexual reproduction in these crops avoids interbreeding and the resulting interbreeding depression. Inbreeding depression is an important consideration because it can counterproductive to the vegetative production's efforts to multiply advantageous genotypes to high frequencies.

Vegetative or Asexual Plant Propagation

Vegetative propagation is the growth and development of a plant by asexual means. Vegetative plant propagation can happen through the use of vegetative parts of the plants, such as leaves, stems, and roots, to produce new plants or though growth from specialized vegetative plant parts. Numerous plants naturally reproduce this way, but it can also be, and frequently is, induced artificially.

Purpose

While numerous plants reproduce by vegetative reproduction, they rarely exclusively use that method to reproduce. While it has numerous advantages, vegetative reproduction is not evolutionary advantageous: it does not really allow for genetic diversity and plants accumulate deleterious mutations. Vegetative reproduction is, however, very useful as plants get to avoid the cost of sexual reproduction. Plants will resort to vegetative propagation when vegetative propagation allows individuals to produce more offspring per unit of resource than reproduction through seed.

What makes it possible

Meristem tissue makes process of asexual reproduction possible. Meristem is normally found in stems, leaves, and tips of stems and roots. Meristem tissue consists of undifferentiated cells that are constantly dividing allowing for plant growth and give rise to plant tissue systems. Meristem tissue ability to continuously divide allows for vegetative propagation to occur.

Another important ability that allows for vegetative propagation is the ability to develop adventitious roots which arise from other vegetative parts of the plants such as the stem or leaves. These roots allow for the development of new plants from plant parts.

Advantages

There are several advantages of vegetative propagation, mainly that the produced offspring are practically clones of their parent plants. If a plant has favorable traits, it can continue to pass down its advantageous genetic information to its offspring. This is especially economically advantageous as it allows commercial growers to clone a certain plant to ensure consistency throughout their crops. For example, developing an apple cultivar is extremely difficult, so, once farmers develop the desired traits in apple, they use grafting and budding to ensure the consistency of the new cultivar and its successful production on a commercial level. Vegetative propagation also allows plants to circumvent the immature seedling phase and reach the mature phase faster. In nature, that increases the chances for a plant to successfully reach maturity, and, commercially, it saves farmers a lot of time and money as it allows for faster crop overturn.

Vegetative propagation in th

Disadvantages

A major disadvantage of vegetative propagation is that it prevents species genetic diversity. The plants are genetically identical and are all, therefore, susceptible to plant viruses, bacteria and fungi that can wipe out entire crops such as in The Great Famine or what we are seeing now in banana trees where Mycosparella musicola, a plant fungus, is causing Sigatoka, also known as leaf spot, and wiping out entire banana crops.

Natural means of vegetative propagation

• Rhizomes

Rhizomes are stem-like structures that grow horizontally across the ground and from which new roots and shoots may arise. They serve as protein and starch storage units serving as a nutrient source for newly developed plants.

Examples of plants that use rhizomes are ginger, lilies and irises.

• Runners

Also known as stolons, runners are modified stems that, unlike rhizomes, grow from existing stems just below the soil surface. As they are propagated, the buds on the modified stems produce roots and stems. Those buds are more separated than the ones found on the rhizome.

Examples of plants that use runners are strawberries and currants.

• Bulbs

As the name suggests, bulbs are inflated parts of the stem within which lie the central shoots of new plants. They are typically underground and are surrounded by plump and layered leaves that provide nutrients to the new plant.

Examples of plants that use bulbs are shallots, lilies and tulips.

• Tubers

These structures develop from either the stem or the root. Stem tubers grow from rhizomes or runners that swell from storing nutrients while root tubers propagate from roots that are modified to store nutrients and get too large and produce a new plant.

Examples of stem tubers are potatoes and yams and examples of root tubers are sweet potatoes and dahlias.

• Corms

Corms are solid enlarged underground stems that store nutrients in their fleshy and solid stem tissue and are surrounded by papery leaves. Corms differ from bulbs in that their centers consists of solid tissue while bulbs consist of layered leaves.

Examples of plants that use corms are gladiolus and taro.

• Suckers

Also known as root sprouts, suckers are plant stems that arise from buds on the base of parent plants stems or on roots.

Examples of plants that use suckers are apple and banana trees.

• Plantlets

Miniature structures that arise from meristem in leaf margins that eventually develops roots and drop from the leaves they grew on

Examples of plants that use plantlets are kalanchoe, also known as the mother of thousand plant. '''Artificial means of vegetative propagation '''

Artificial vegetative propagation is a kind of plant reproduction that is induced by human intervention. These methods, including cutting, grafting, suckering, layering and tissue culture, are used by farmers and horticulturalists to produce better crops with desirable qualities.

• Cutting

A part of the plant, usually a stem or a lead, is cut off and planted. Adventitious roots grow from cuttings and a new plant eventually develops. Usually those cuttings are treated with hormones before being plants to induce growth.

• Grafting

A scion, or a desired cutting, is attached to the stem of another plant that remains rooted in the ground. Eventually both tissue systems become grafted or integrated and a plant with the characteristics of the grafted plant develops.

• Layering

This process includes the bending of plant branches or stems so that they touch the ground and are covered with soil. Adventitious roots develop from the underground part of the plant, which is known as the layer. This method of vegetative reproduction also occurs naturally. Another similar method, air layering, involved the scraping and replanting of tree branches which develop into trees.

• Suckering

Suckers grow and form a dense compact mat that is attached to the parent plant. Too many suckers can lead to smaller crop size, so excess suckers are pruned, and mature suckers are transplanted to a new area where they develop into new plants.

• Tissue culture

Plant cells are taken from various parts of the plant and are cultured and nurtured in a sterilized container. The mass of developed tissue, known as the callus, is then cultured in a hormone-ladened medium and eventually develops into plantlets which are then planted and eventually develop into grown plants.

http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=4&sid=d0fe2043-3fb9-40d0-8e01-75465f8f0f2a%40sessionmgr4008&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=126924077&db=aph http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=6&sid=d0fe2043-3fb9-40d0-8e01-75465f8f0f2a%40sessionmgr4008&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=17556235&db=aph http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=7&sid=d0fe2043-3fb9-40d0-8e01-75465f8f0f2a%40sessionmgr4008&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=23860395&db=aph http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=9&sid=d0fe2043-3fb9-40d0-8e01-75465f8f0f2a%40sessionmgr4008&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=60939053&db=aph http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=15&sid=d0fe2043-3fb9-40d0-8e01-75465f8f0f2a%40sessionmgr4008&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=91904457&db=aph Perennial plant
 * Barely any sources, so I want to expand on this topic and make this article more extensive
 * I want to expand on the structure, lifecycle, growth, economical significance, ecological importance, where they are found, types and list of all extant perennials.
 * I want to talk more about the evolution, evolutionary advantages and reproduction of these plants.

Donaldson, John, et al. “Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Pollinator Diversity and Plant Reproductive Success in Renosterveld Shrublands of South Africa.” Conservation Biology, vol. 16, no. 5, 2002, pp. 1267–1276., doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.99515.x.

Four perennial plant species showed no discernible change in fruit or seed set across a range of fragment sizes, two species pro- duced fewer fruits or seeds on small fragments, and one species produced fewer fruits on large fragments. Re- productive success appeared to be influenced by factors such as vegetation cover, the availability of pollinators, and plant population size. Perennial plants appeal to a variety of pollinators.

Karban, Richard, and Sharon Y. Strauss. “Effects of Herbivores on Growth and Reproduction of their Perennial Host, Erigeron Glaucus.” Ecology, vol. 74, no. 1, 1993, pp. 39–46., doi:10.2307/1939499.

This article discusses the response of perennial plants to predation. By consuming apical buds, the caterpillars released axillary buds, thereby causing plants to produce more side rosettes. This difference in architecture did not result in an increase in flower production. Plants that had experienced 3 yr of spittlebug or caterpillar attack produced fewer flower  heads than controls during their 3rd yr. One year later, and after  the  herbivory  treatments were  discontinued,  plants  that had been damaged by spittlebugs (but not plume moth caterpillars) still produced fewer flowers than those in other treatments.

Kelly, Dave, and Victoria L. Sork. “Mast Seeding in Perennial Plants: Why, How, Where?” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, vol. 33, no. 1, 2002, pp. 427–447., doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.020602.095433.

Article discusses the effects of biotic and abiotic factors on mast seeding. Two selective factors often favor the evolution of masting: increased pollination efficiency in wind-pollinated species, and satiation of seed predators. Other factors select against masting, including animal pollination and frugivore dispersal.

Pugliese, Andrea, and Jan Kozlowski. “Optimal patterns of growth and reproduction for perennial plants with persisting or not persisting vegetative parts.” Evolutionary Ecology, vol. 4, no. 1, 1990, pp. 75–89., doi:10.1007/bf02270717.

Article discusses growth and reproduction patterns of perennial plants and how they have critical points and they have to balance growth and reproduction.

Schmid, Bernhard, et al. “Size dependency of sexual reproduction and of clonal growth in two perennial plants.” Canadian Journal of Botany, vol. 73, no. 11, 1995, pp. 1831–1837., doi:10.1139/b95-194.

Article discusses modes of vegetative and clonal reproduction and mass allocation for sexual and vegetative reproduction.

Takada, Takenori, and Hisao Nakajima. “The Optimal Allocation for Seed Reproduction and Vegetative Reproduction in Perennial Plants: An Application to the Density-Dependent Transition Matrix Model.” Journal of Theoretical Biology, vol. 182, no. 2, 1996, pp. 179–191., doi:10.1006/jtbi.1996.0153. Weiher, Evan, et al. “Challenging Theophrastus: A common core list of plant traits for functional ecology.” Journal of Vegetation Science, vol. 10, no. 5, 1999, pp. 609–620., doi:10.2307/3237076.

This article also goes into when vegetative reproduction is favored over sexual reproduction and vice versa.

Shefferson, Richard P. “The evolutionary ecology of vegetative dormancy in mature herbaceous perennial plants.” Journal of Ecology, vol. 97, no. 5, 2009, pp. 1000–1009., doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2009.01525.x.

Silvertown, Jonathan, et al. “Comparative Plant Demography--Relative Importance of Life-Cycle Components to the Finite Rate of Increase in Woody and Herbaceous Perennials.” The Journal of Ecology, vol. 81, no. 3, 1993, p. 465., doi:10.2307/2261525.

Takada, Takenori. “Evolution of semelparous and iteroparous perennial plants:” Journal of Theoretical Biology, vol. 173, no. 1, 1995, pp. 51–60., doi:10.1006/jtbi.1995.0042.

Zhang, D.-Y., and X.-H. Jiang. “Size-Dependent resource allocation and sex allocation in herbaceous perennial plants.” Journal of Evolutionary Biology, vol. 15, no. 1, 2002, pp. 74–83., doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00369.x.