User:Marcd30319/Task Force 60 version A

Task Force 60 (TF-60) is the task force designation for the Battle Force of the United States Sixth Fleet.

During the Cold War and its immediate aftermath, Task Force 60 was the Sixth Fleet's aircraft carrier task force, and it typically consisted of two carrier battle groups. Unlike its counterpart in the U.S. Seventh Fleet, Task Force 77, TF-60 never participated in a major conflict like the Korean War or Vietnam War. The only Cold War-era combat operations involving Task Force 60 were the 4 December 1983 air strike against anti-aircraft missile batteries near Beruit, Lebanon, and 1986's Operation Prairie Fire and Operation El Dorado Canyon. Following the Cold War, Task Force 60 saw action in 1995's Operation Deliberate Force, 1999's Operation Noble Anvil, and 2003's Operation Iraqi Freedom.

In addition to being an instrument of American foreign policy throughout the Mediterranean basin and the Middle East, Task Force 60 was the sole nuclear strike force for the U.S. Sixth Fleet until U.S. ballistic missile submarines began deploying to the Mediterranean Sea in 1963. TF-60 continued to be a component of American nuclear strategy throughout the Cold War until the 1991 presidential order that removed all nuclear weapons from U.S. naval warships.

Also during the Cold War and its immediate aftermath, Task Force 60 was also the mainstay for Task Force 502, NATO's carrier task force for its southern theater of operations. As such, TF-60 participated in such pioneering NATO exercises as Longstep and Deep Water, as well as such annual exercises as Display Determination, Dawn Patrol, and Distant Hammer, during the Cold War.

With the ongoing deployment of carrier strike groups to the U.S. Fifth Fleet in support of the Global War on Terror, Task Force 60 was typically commanded by the commodore of Destroyer Squadron 60. Task Force 60 was also designated as the Naval Task Force Europe and Africa in support of the Africa Partnership Station program.

Background
During World War Two, unlike the Pacific War which was the domain of the fast carrier task force, U.S. carrier operations involved escort carriers providing close air support to amphibious landings in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations. The only instance of a fast aircraft carrier operating in the Mediterrranean Sea during World War Two was when the USS Wasp (CV-7) delivered replacement Spitfire fighters to the British garrison on Malta in 1942. Following the war, in response to growing crises in Turkey and Greece, the United States Navy planned to deploy the U.S. Eighth Fleet, led by the carriers USS Midway (CVB-41), USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CVB-42), and USS Princeton (CV-37), in early 1946. When the U.S. Department of State objected, considering the deployment as being too provocative, the U.S. battleship USS Missouri (BB-63) was deployed to Mediterranean.

With the escalating crises in Turkey and Greece, Task Group 125.4 led by the carrier USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CV-42) departed Norfolk Naval Base, Virginia, for the the eastern Mediterrranean on 8 August 1946 under the command of Rear Admiral John H. Cassady. The key event of this deployment was a highly-publicized port visit to Piraeus, Greece, on 5 September 1946 {pictured).  According to the late American historian James Chace noted, this deployment by Task Group 125.4 "symbolized" the true beginning of the Cold War by demonstrating U.S. support of the pro-Western governments of Greece and Turkey in the face of external Soviet pressure and internal Communist insurrections.

When the carrier USS Randolph (CV-15) entered the Mediterranean Sea on 1 November 1946, the U.S. Navy began the postwar deployment of fast carrier task forces to the region (see chart below). Reflecting this development, U.S. Naval Forces Mediterranean was established on 1 October 1946 and was subsequently redesignated the U.S. Sixth Fleet on 12 February 1950. Following the start of Korean War, on 28 June 1950, U.S. President Harry S. Truman authorized a second carrier task group be added to the U.S. Sixth Fleet's fast carrier task force, Task Force 60.
 * U.S. aircraft carrier deployments to the Mediterranean Sea, 1946–1950

Task Force 60 and nuclear warfare
Between 1953 and 1963, Task Force 60 was the sole nuclear-armed strike force for the U.S. Sixth Fleet operating in the Mediterranean Sea. Although initially controversial, in the event of a nuclear war, U.S. Navy would supplement, but not supersede the worldwide bombing campaign of the U.S. Air Force's Strategic Air Command, with carrier task forces attacking Soviet naval bases, submarine pens, port facilities, and other maritime targets. This approach was an off-shoot from the immediate post-war strategy to bomb Soviet submarine bases "at the source" developed by Anglo-American naval planners to forestall a third Battle of the Atlantic from taking place.

Initially, the P2V-3C Neptune (pictured) was used as on an interim basis to deliver atomic bombs from Midway-class aircraft carriers. The AJ Savage was the first carrier-based attack aircraft designed to operate full time from a carrier's flight deck. However, neither aircraft was entirely satisfactory. The U.S. Navy found the right carrier-based aircraft to meet its strategic nuclear mission in the jet-powered Douglas A-3 Skywarrior.

The first squadron equipped with the A-3 Skywarrior was Heavy Attack Squadron 1 (VAH-1), and its first overseas deployment was with Task Force 60 in November 1956. Initially, the 12-aircraft squadron was split into two detachments on the task force's two Forrestal-class aircraft carriers, the USS Saratoga (CVA-60) and USS Forrestal (CVA-59) (pictured). The next and final heavy attack bomber was the supersonic North American A-5 Vigilante which was converted to tactical strike reconnaissance following its initial deployment with Task Force 60.

While the A-3 Skywarrior was the mainstay for heavy attack squadrons, further developments saw the introduction of light attack aircraft for the Navy's nuclear warfare mission. The first jet-powered light attack aircraft were modified McDonnell F2HB Banshee fighters assigned to Composite Squadron 4 (VC-4). In August 1952, nuclear-armed F2HB Banshees made their first overseas deployment as a four-aircraft detachment assigned to the USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CVA-42) which participated in a NATO exercise in the north Atlantic before joining Task Force 60 in the Mediterranean. The penultimate U.S. Navy light attack bomber was the all-weather Grumman A-6 Intruder. Squadron VA-75 was the first to get the A-6. Originally, VA-75 and its A-6s were to make their first overseas deployment with Task Force 60 in 1965, but VA-75 was diverted to the U.S. Seventh Fleet for the Vietnam War.

In August 1960, the Joint Strategic Target Planning Staff (JSTPS) was established as inter-service agency based at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, the headquarters for the Strategic Air Command. JSTPS developed a national strategic target list (NSTL) amd a single integrated operational plan (SIOP) for the United States. SIOP was the U.S. joint battle plan for nuclear warfare which now included the U.S. Navy's aircraft carriers and Polaris-missile submarines. Previously, the targeting of nuclear-armed carrier aircraft and Polaris missiles were the responsibility of the fleet commanders in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Europe. As a part of SIOP, Task Force 60 was required to operate within ready steaming distance from its launching zone in the event of a nuclear war. Although ballistic missile submarines became a recognized part of the United States' nuclear triad, TF-60 aircraft carriers retained a residual nuclear warfare capability and remained in SIOP.

On 5 October 1991, U.S. President George H.W. Bush announced the removal of all nuclear weapons from U.S. naval surface warships, concluding the role of Task Force 60 as a sea-based nuclear strike force.

Task Force 60 and NATO's southern flank
In January 1950, the North Atlantic Council approved NATO's military strategic concept of deterring Soviet aggression. NATO military planning took on a renewed urgency following the outbreak of the Korean War, prompting NATO to establish Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) on 2 April 1951. Also in 1951, NATO's military southern region was set up as Allied Forces South (AFSOUTH) under the command of Admiral Robert B. Carney, USN, with the commander of the U.S. Sixth Fleet as AFSOUTH's naval commander. When Allied Forces Mediterranean (AFMED) was established in 1952 under Lord Mountbatten, Admiral Carney retained control the the Sixth Fleet and Task Force 60 as Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe (STRIKFORSOUTH). Under this command arrangement, STRIKFORSOUTH was effectively the NATO designation for the Sixth Fleet, though additional NATO headquarters personnel were assigned, while maintaining American-only control over the nuclear weapons on board the U.S. aircraft carriers of Task Force 60 as mandated by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946. Task Force 502 was the designation for STRIKFORSOUTH's carrier task force. For 1952's Exercise Longstep, the objective of the Allied ("Blue") forces was to dislodge enemy ("Green") invasion forces from their occupying positions in the Eastern Mediterranean. Green forces consisted of the Italian 56th Tactical Air Force and submarines of the United States, Great Britain, France, Greece, and Turkey lying in wait to ambush the Blue amphibious convoy departing from Italian embarkation ports. Blue naval forces were centered around Task Force 60 and its two aircraft carriers, the USS Wasp (CV-18) and USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CV-42) (pictured). Air sorties were flown by American and Italian aircraft attacking Blue naval forces, with Blue carrier-based aircraft counter-attacking Green military targets in northern Italy.

For 1958's Operation Deep Water, the exercise's scenario was that NATO forces would protect the Dardanelles from a Soviet invasion in order to prevent the Soviet Black Sea Fleet from gaining access to the Mediterranean Sea. Given the overwhelming numerical superiority of Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact military forces, NATO embraced the concept of the nuclear umbrella to protect Western Europe from a Soviet ground invasion. Consequently, Operation Deep Water opened with a simulated atomic air strike in the Gallipoli area on 25 September 1957 that included Task Force 60 carriers USS Randolph (CVA-15) and USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CVA-42).

Following the end of the Cold War, NATO's Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe (STRIKFORSOUTH) was re-designated as Naval Striking and Support Forces NATO (STRIKFORNATO) on 1 July 2004 with operational responsibilities throughout NATO's area of responsibilities.

Task Force 60 and Soviet Navy Fifth Eskadra
During the Cold War, the Fifth Eskadra was the designation for the Soviet naval forces operating in the Mediterranean Sea, with the Soviet Black Sea Fleet providing its surface warships and the Soviet Red Banner Northern Fleet provided its submarines. Its purpose was to act as a counter-balance and deterrent to the U.S. Sixth Fleet and its Task Force 60. Between May and June 1956, a three-ship Soviet naval flotilla paid visits to ports in Albania and Yugoslavia. In October 1957, the Sverdlov-class cruiser Mikhail Kutuzov paid a port visit to Latakia, Syria. Between 1958–1960, the Soviet Navy maintained a submarine base at Vlorë, Albania. In 1964, the Soviet Union initiated a continuous naval presence in the Mediterranean Sea when a cruiser and two destroyers transited the Turkish Straits. In 1966, the Fifth Eskadra, including a submarine tender, paid visits to ports in Egypt and Algeria.

Prior the the outbreak of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, the Fifth Eskadra had only two major surface warship operating in the Mediterranean, the Kirov-class cruiser cruiser Slava and a destroyer. During the subsequent crisis, the Fifth Eskadra grew to 70 ships, including 2 cruisers, 15 destroyers, and 10 submarine. Fifth Eskadra warships did not trail Task Force 60 and other warships of the U.S. Sixth Fleet, but surrounded the American ships to launch a potential preemptive with with anti-ship missile. Western naval strategists and analysts characterized such Soviet naval formations as "anti-carrier groups." On 8 June 1967, the Soviet corvette P-160 forced the carrier USS America (CV-66) to change course to avoid a collision. Soviet naval activity during this crisis prompted Sixth Fleet commander Vice Admiral William I. Martin to send the following orders to Commander, Task Force 60 (CTF-60) Rear Admiral Lawrence R. Geis on 5 June 1967:


 * THE THREAT IMPOSED BY THE PRESENCE OF SOVIET WARSHIPS AND THE CURRENT ESTIMATE OF 8-9 SOVIET SUBMARINES DICTATES THAT THE INHERENT MOBILITY OF THE CVA GROUP BE EXPLOITED TO MINIMIZE INTELLIGENCE AVAILABLE TO SOVIETS, AGGRAVATE THE SOVIET LOGISTICS PROBLEMS AND IMPROVE TF 60 POSTURE TO CARRY OUT WHATEVER TASKS MAY BE LEVIED BY HIGHER AUTHORITY.

During the 1969 Libyan coup, Task Force 60 face a Fifth Eskadra that included four cruisers, seven destroyers, six escort vessels, six diesel-electric cruise-missile submarines, and one nuclear-powered attack submarine. During the 1970 Jordanian Crisis, the Fifth Eskadra had an anti-carrier group in the Mediterranean, and when a third carrier battle group joined Task Force 60, another anti-carrier group joined the Soviet naval squadron.

For 1973's Yom Kippur War, Fifth Eskadra grew to 95 ships, and its anti-carrier groups not only targeted the three carrier battle groups of Task Force 60, but for the first time, the amphibious ready groups of Task Force 61 were also targeted. On 8 October 1973, a Kotlin-class destroyer aimed its main guns at the carrier USS Independence (CV-62).

Prior to 1986's Operation El Dorado Canyon, Task Force 60 made a high-speed transit to Libya under EMCON Alpha conditions, the total shutdown of radar and radio emissions. TF-60 successfully evaded one intelligence-gathering trawler, two destroyers, and a pair of Il-38 maritime patrol aircraft temporarily based in Libya. Additionally, the flagship of the Soviet Mediterranean flotilla, a Don-class submarine tender, was moored in Tripoli at the time of the air strike, and it was in a position to relay the movements of Task Force 60 to the Gaddafi regime.

In 2013, during the ongoing Syrian civil war, the Russian Navy sent over a dozen warship to the Mediterranean Sea to patrol near its naval support facility at Tartus, Syria. The Wall Street Journal described the deployment as being "one of its largest sustained naval deployments since the Cold War" for the Russian Navy. On 6 June 2013, Russian President Vladimir Putin formally endorsed a permanent Russian naval presence. This new naval force will utilize naval units from Russia’s Black Sea, Baltic, and Northern fleets.

Showing the flag
Task Force 60 supported the U.S. Sixth Fleet's mission of showing the flag on behalf of the United States and its allied throughout the Mediterranean Sea. On 15 July 1951, while servicing with Task Force 60, the carrier USS Coral Sea (CVB-43) hosted Marshall Tito of Yugoslavia who observed carrier operations during a one-day cruise as a demonstration of U.S. support following Yugoslavia's expulsion from the Comintern in 1948.

The presence of the Sixth Fleet and its Task Force 60 also provided a stabilizing presence in the often volatile Middle East. On 14 August 1950, Task Force 60 carriers USS Midway (CVB-41) and USS Leyte (CV-32) performed an airpower demonstration during a post visit to Beirut, Lebanon. This visit by the Sixth Fleet was made at the request of the Lebanese Government, and it demonstrated the continuing American commitment to the eastern Mediterranean regardless of the operational demands of the Korean War. Between August to November 1957, the Sixth Fleet deployed to the eastern Mediterranean to stabilize a border dispute between Syria and Turkey, a NATO ally. Task Force 60 consisted of the USS Randolph (CVA-15) and USS Intrepid (CVA-11) task groups.

In March 1956, amid growing internal and external turmoil, King Hussein of Jordan dismissed General Sir John Glubb as commander of the Transjordan's Arab Legion. In response, Task Force 60 carriers Coral Sea and USS Randolph (CV-15) deployed to the eastern Mediterranean with a Sixth Fleet amphibious task group. This crisis ended when a new cabinet was formed. In April 1957, amid a coup attempt against King Hussein, the U.S. Sixth Fleet and the British Mediterranean Fleet deployed to the eastern Mediterranean in a show of force. For this crisis, Task Force 60 consisted of the Intrepid, USS Lake Champlain (CVA-39), and USS Forrestal (CVA-59) carrier task groups (pictured).

Suez Crisis of 1956
1956's Suez Crisis was caused by the nationalization of the Suez Canal by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser on 26 July 1956. In a coordinated response, the Israeli military launnched Operation Kadesh, the invasion of the Sinai peninsula, on 29 October 1956. This was followed by an Anglo-French invasion force to retake the Suez Canal on 31 October 1967. The British and French navies used the upcoming NATO exercise Beehive to assemble their carrier-invasion fleet for this operation.

Following orders from the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, the U.S. Sixth Fleet cancelled its planned participation in NATO Exercise Beehive, and Task Force 60's two carriers, USS Coral Sea (CVA-43) and USS Randolph (CVA-15) (pictured), were ordered east-southeast of Cyprus to monitor the Anglo-French task force as well as provide air cover for the evacuation of U.S. nationals from Alexandria, Egypt. With the crisis continued, a two-carrier force was deployed to the Eastern Atlantic Ocean to reinforce Task Force 60 if needed. Designated Task Force 26, this carrier task force consisted of the USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CVA-42) and USS Forrestal (CVA-59) under the command of Rear Admiral Murr E. Arnold. The two TF-26 carriers had been loaded with additional nuclear weapons prior to their departure.

By 22 December 1956, the British-French forces had withdrawn from Egyptian territory, and Israeli forces  had withdrawn from  Gaza by 19 March 1957.
 * Task Force 60, 1956

Lebanon crisis of 1958
In 1958, an insurrection in Lebanon broke out, instigated by Lebanese Muslims who wanted to make Lebanon a member of the United Arab Republic. On 14 July 1958, a military coup d'état led by General Abd al-Karim Qasim overthrew the pro-Western Iraqi government of King Faisal II, prompting Lebanese President Camille Chamoun to request assistance from the United States to help restore order in Lebanon. In accordance with the Eisenhower Doctrine, the United States initiated a military intervention code-named Operation Blue Bat.

On 15 July 1958, the U.S. Sixth Fleet set sail for the eastern Mediterranean, arriving 17 July 1958. Between 15–18 July 1958, three U.S. Marine Corps Battalion Landing Teams landed near Beruit, with U.S. Army troops airlifted from Germany. By the end of 10 July 1958, U.S. ground forces in Lebanon numbered 11,000, and it reached a peak strength of more than 14,000 by 8 August 1958.

For Operation Blue Bat, Task Force 60 initially consisted of the USS Saratoga (CVA-60) and USS Essex (CVA-9) task groups under the overall command of Rear Admiral Howard A. Yeagar. TF-60 provided combat air support against potential air attacks from Egypt, Syria or the Soviet Union via Bulgaria. Since British forces deploying to Jordan to support King Hussein's government, RAF aircraft were initially unavailable. Task Force 60 took on the entire air combat mission during the early stages of Operation Blue Bat.

The Essex task group was the first carrier force on station, arriving off Beriut on 15 July 1958. Essex launched a 11 aircraft to provide close air support for the first U.S. Marine Battalion Landing Team that went ashore. The Essex task group provided nearly around-the-clock air cover to the Marines through 20 September 1958, On 17 July 1958, the 'Saratoga task group arrived on station and began providing combat air patrol and reconnaissance. Also on that date, Task Force 60 launched 50 aircraft that flew a low-level show of force over the west bank of Jordan River prior the first arrival of British Army forces. Task Force 60 maintained a high-typo of air operations between 3 August and 5 September 1958, flying a total of 6,985 sorties. Task Group 60 operated near 33° North - 33° East while maintaining a loose ship formation for protection against potential nuclear attack. Task Force 60 maintained daytime air cover while it replenished its fuel, stores, and ammunition at night.

Beginning 23 July 1958, with the crisis easing, Essex and Saratoga began to rotate for shore leave. On 28 August 1958, the Essex task group transited the Suez Canal to reinforce the U.S. Seventh Fleet off the Formosa Straits during the Quemoy-Matsu crisis. On 12 September 1958, the Forrestal and Randolph task groups joined Task Force 60, and the Saratoga departed the Mediterranean Sea on 21 September 1958. On 5 September 1958, Task Force 60 ended its air support for Operation Blue Bat.

On 8 October 1958, a new Lebanese cabinet was formed, and the Operation Blue Bat ended on 25 October 1958.
 * Task Force 60, 1958

Cypriot, Greek, and Libyian crises
Starting on 21 January 1964, ongoing violence between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots threatened the stability of the island of Cyprus. This violence complicated the introduction of a UN peace-keeping force to the island as did the possibility of intervention by Turkey. Task Force 60 carriers periodically patrolled the immediate vicinity through August 1965.

On 21 April 1967, a coup d'état toppled the Greek government. Task Force 60 dispatched the USS America (CVA-66) task group to join a contingency force that included two amphibious ready groups to monitor the situation.

Following the 1 September 1969 military takeover of the Kingdom of Libya, the U.S. Sixth Fleet sent a contingency force consisting of the two-carrier Task Force 60 and an amphibious ready group to the area.

1967 Arab-Isreali War
With Arab-Israeli tensions escalating, on 23 March 1967, the United States Sixth Fleet went on alert following the threatened closure of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping by Egypt. Anticipating potential freedom of navigation operations in the Straits of Tiran, code-named Red Sea Regatta, the Sixth Fleet was temporarily reinforced by the USS Intrepid (CVS-11) anti-submarine task group before its transited the Suez Canal en route to Vietnam War. The eventual total number of ships assigned to the Sixth Fleet was 65. On 29 April 1967, Rear Admiral Lawrence R. Geis took command of Task Force 60, consisting of the USS America (CVA-66) and USS Saratoga (CVA-60) task groups. Both task groups started operating together in the Sea of Crete beginning 27 May 1967. On 5 June 1967, Israel launched Operation Focus, a preemptive aerial bombing campaign that destroyed the air forces of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. This operation was followed by a ground campaign across multiple fronts. With the opening of hostilities, on that same date, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson personally ordered the Sixth Fleet to remain in the vicinity of Crete and not to steam any closer to the war zone. Between 7–8 July 1967, Task Force 60 detected and tracked a probable submarine contact shadowing the force.

On 8 July 1967, Task Force 60 received the following communications from the U.S. Navy technical research ship USS Liberty (AGTR-5): "Under attack by unidentified jet aircraft, require immediate assistance." Sixth Fleet's response was: "Help was on the way." Sixth Fleet commander Vice Admiral William I. Martin ordered Task Force 60 to launch an air strike to protect the Liberty.

The Saratoga launched four A-4 Skyhawks and four A-1 Skyraiders, all armed with conventional weapons. Four F-4B Phantom IIs were also launched as well as four A-4 aerial tankers carrying extra fuel for the strike force. These 16 aircraft were catapulted from the Saratoga in ten minutes, with the initial launch happening eight minutes after receiving the initial order to go. The America was undergoing a nuclear weapons exercise, and those training weapons had to be returned to the carrier's munitions magazine before its air strike force could be re-armed with conventional weapons. Four A-4 Skyhawks escorted by F-4B Phantom IIs were launched by the America. Rear Admiral Lawrence R. Geis's orders to the TF-60 air strike force were explicit:


 * DEFENSE OF USS LIBERTY MEANS EXACTLY THAT. DESTROY OR DRIVE OFF ANY ATTACKERS WHO ARE CLEARLY MAKING ATTACKS ON LIBERTY. REMAIN OVER INTERNATIONAL WATERS. DEFEND YOURSELF IF ATTACKED.

Subsequently, diplomatic sources revealed that the Liberty was inadvertently attacked by Israeli naval and air forces, and Admiral Martin ordered the recall of the TF-60 air strike. Task Force 60 dispatched the destroyers USS Davis (DD-937) and USS Massey (DD-778) to rendezvous with the stricken Liberty, and the injured were transported to the America by helicopter. Those A-4 Skyhawks armed with Bullpup missiles were diverted to the NATO airfield on Souda Bay, Crete, because it was judged that landing back on board the carriers with Bullpup missiles was too dangerous. Both the A-4s and the Bullpup missiles subsequently returned to their respective carriers.

The 1967 Arab-Israeli War ended on 11 June 1967 with Israel capturing the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria
 * Task Force 60, 1967

Jordanian crisis of 1970
In 1970, Rear Admiral James L. Holloway III commanded Task Force 60 which deployed to the Eastern Mediterranean to conduct carrier air operations in reaction to the Syrian invasion of Jordan. After the strong U.S. military response brought about the withdrawal of the Syrian forces, TF-60 covered the evacuation of an Army MASH (Mobile Army Surgical Hospital) unit from Amman, Jordan, by a Marine Expeditionary Group. For this performance of duty, Admiral Holloway was awarded a second Distinguished Service Medal and shared in a Meritorious Unit Commendation awarded to his flagship, the carrier USS Independence (CVA-62).
 * Task Force 60, 1970

1973 Arab-Isreali War

 * Task Force 60, 1973

Cyprus crisis of 1974-1975
On 15 July 1974, a military coup d'état led by the Greek Cypriot paramilitary forces ousted President Makarios III and replaced him with the pro-Enosis nationalist Nikos Sampson. Under the command of Rear Admiral Forrest S. Petersen, Task Force 60 retained the homeward-bound carrier USS America (CV-66) Task Group at Rota, Spain, to reinforce the USS Forrestal (CV-59) task group steaming towards Cyprus to provide air cover for a possibler evacuation of foreign national, arriving 19 July 1974.

The crisis on Cyprus intensified when Turkey invaded the island on 20 July 1974, taking control of the north and cutting off about a third of the total territory. The final partition was marked by the United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus or "green line" running east to west across the island. Turkish Cypriots established an independent government in that territory called the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus. On 22 July 1974, 466 foreign nationals were air-lifted via helicopter to the USS Coronado (LPD-11) of Task Force 61 for transport to Beriut, Lebanon. U.S. naval forces in the area remained on high state of readiness through 2 September 1974 as the situation on Cyprus began to stabilize.

On 18 January 1975, with violent demonstrations by Greek Cypriots in Nicosia threatening the U.S. Embassy, Task Force 60's carrier USS Saratoga (CV-60) (pictured) steamed to a position southwest of Cyprus to provide air cover for a U.S. naval contigency force that included an amphibious ready group. As the situation began to ease, U.S. naval forces departed the area on 21 January 1975.

Libyan incidents, 1979–1980
After the 1969 coup d'état which brought Muammar Gaddafi to power in Libya, there have been a number of international incidents concerning territorial claims of the Gaddafi regime over the waters of the Gulf of Sidra. On 11 October 1973, in response to the U.S. resupply of arms to Israeli during the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, Gaddafi claimed much of the Gulf of Sidra to be within Libyan internal waters, drawing a straight line at 32° 30' North between a point near Benghazi and the western headland of the gulf at Misrata with an exclusive 62 nmi fishing zone. Gaddafi declared this to be The Line of Death, the crossing of which would invite a military response from Libya. On 11 February 1974, the U.S. Department of State issued an official rejection of Gaddafi's unilateral claim of sovereighty over Gulf of Sidra as being "a violation of international law."

During 1979, Libyan fighter jets fired upon U.S. RC-135 reconnaissance aircraft on three difference occasions while operaring in international airspace. Additionally, in September 1980, repeated approaches by Libyan fighter jets prompted the USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67) carrier battle group to vector its F-14 fighters to intercept and escort Libyan aircraft away from the task group while it was operating in international waters. During 1979, Libyan fighter jets fired upon U.S. RC-135 reconnaissance aircraft on three difference occasions while operaring in international airspace. Additionally, in September 1980, repeated approaches by Libyan fighter jets prompted the USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67) carrier battle group to vector its F-14 fighters to intercept and escort Libyan aircraft away from the task group while it was operating in international waters.

Libyan operations
The incoming Reagan administration rejected Libyan claims that the Gulf of Sidra was its territorial waters and authorized the United States Navy to conduct Freedom of Navigation (FON) operations in the Gulf of Sidra. Unlike the Carter administration, the rules of engagement were clearer and more flexible, allowing more discretion for U.S. forces to act in self-defense without requiring explicit permission from higher authority.

1981 Gulf of Sidra incident
On 12 and 14 August 1981, the U.S. Sixth Fleet issued a notice to mariners and airlines regarding the location and duration of an upcoming naval exercises, code-named OOMEX. The area of the exercise would encompass the Gulf of Sidra below the 32° 30' North parallel, the Libyan self-proclaimed "Line of Death." Rear Admiral James E. Service was in command of Task Force 60, and he would be the officer in tactical command (OTC) during the exercise. Task Force 60 consisted of the USS Nimitz (CVN-68) and USS Forrestal (CV-59) battle groups.

On 18 August 1981, the OOMEX naval exercises began. Task Force 60 carried out missile launches against target drones from aircraft and warship while maintaining an active combat air patrol over the task force. Also on that date, two U.S. destroyers, the USS William V. Pratt (DDG-44) and USS Caron (DD-970), crossed 32 degrees, 30 minutes north, and operated south of the "Line of Death" in international waters for the next 36 hours. Since the exercise area area included the northern most boundary of the Tripoli flight information region (FIR), all TF-60 aircraft maintained contact with Libyan air traffic control. The Libyan Air Force launched several flights of fighter-bombers to probe the defenses of Task Force 60. TF-60 combat air patrols performed 35 intercepts involving 70 Libyan aircraft, with the U.S. aircraft escorting the Libyan aircraft away from the task force. On the next day, 19 August 1981, two Libyan Su-22 Fitter fighter-bombers were intercepted by two F-14 Tomcat fighters from squadron VF-41. During this interception, one of the Su-22 fighters targeted one of the American aircraft with its air-to-air Atoll missile. In the ensuing dogfight, both Libyan planes were shot down by Sidewinder missiles launched by the Tomcats. The OOMEX naval exercises concluded on 19 August 1981.
 * Task Force 60, 1981

Operation Prairie Fire
Over the next five years, Task Force 60 operations near the Gulf of Sidra were limited because of ongoing commitments to provide air support to the Multinational Force in Lebanon. In 1983, the Nimitz battle group operated in the area in February, and the USS Eisenhower (CVN-69) and USS Coral Sea (CV-43) battle groups operated there in August 1983. In July 1984, the F-14 fighters from the USS Saratoga (CV-60) battle group flew below the "Line of Death" twice. The 1983 deployment of the Nimitz battle group to the Gulf of Sidra coincided with an aborted attempt to destroy the Libyan Air Force code-named Operation Early Call.

Following the late 1985 Libyan-supported Achille Lauro hijacking and Rome and Vienna airport attacks, the Reagan administration began planning a new round of freedon of navigation (FON) maneuvers in the Gulf of Sidra, code-named Attain Document. For the initial two Attain Document exercises, the immediate objective was for Task Force 60 to operate inside the Tripoli flight information region (FIR) but above the "Line of Death." The rules of engagement would be the same as those used in 1981 but the Sixth Fleet commander, Vice Admiral Frank Kelso, authorized vigorous action to protect the task force if threatened. On 15 January 1986, the USS Coral Sea (CV-43) and USS Saratoga (CV-60) carrier battle groups rendezvoused, and Rear Admiral David E. Jeremiah assumed command of Task Force 60. On 26 January 1986, FON exercise Attain Document I began. Over the next two days, TF-60 combat air patrols executed 11 interceptions of Libyan Air Force jet aircraft. On 30 January 1986, Attain Document I ended, and Task Force 60 steamed away from the Tripoli FIR zone. On 12 February 1986, Attain Document II began. Over the next four days, combat air patrols made 170 interceptions of Libyan military aircraft approaching Task Force 60. Unlike the first Attain Document exercise, the Libyan aircraft were characterized as being more aggressive. For example, Libyan MiG-25 fighter jets over-flew the Coral Sea but only under the tight escort of the carrier's F/A-18 strike fighters. Attain Document II ended on 15 February 1986, with Task Force 60 departing the northern Tripoli FIR zone.

For the third Attain Document exercise, its principal objective for Task Force 60 was to operate below the so-called Line of Death, the 32° 30' North parallel across the Gulf of Sidre. Additionally, Attain Document III operational plan included a contigency option code-named Prairie Fire that defined new rules of engagement allowing local commanders to act against any hostile threat or action, including retaliation against the source of that threat, based on the concept of "proportional response." On 18 March 1986, the USS America (CVA-66) carrier battle group joined Task Force 60, bringing three-carrier task force to 26 ships and 250 aircraft. Joining Task Force 60 was the fleet commander Admiral Kelso onboard his flagship, the USS Coronado (AGF-11).

On 23 March 1986, Attain Document Iii began with Task Force 60, code-named Battle Force Zulu, operating north of the Tripoli FIR zone. Later that day, at 2013 Z, TF-60 shifted its combat air patrols to include the airspace south of the Line of Death. On 24 March 1986 at 1352 Z, a surface action group crossed the Line of Death and began operating in the Gulf of Sidre.

At 1352, the missile site at Sirte locked its tracking radar on F-14 fighter from squadron VF-102 and fired two SA-5 Gammon long-range surface-to-air missiles (pictured). The F-14s successfully evaded the two missile, and at the time of this attack, the F-14s were operating in international airspace 80 nmi from the Libyan coast. Later that day, Task Force 60 made its only aerial interception for Attain Document III when two F-14 fighters from squadron VF-74 successfully escorted two Libyan MiG-15s away from the task force. After analysis of the telemetry of the fired missiles, at 1538, Admiral Kelso executed Operation Prairie Fire, authorizing Task Force 60 to treat any Libyan military aircraft and naval vessels approaching the task force as being hostile (See map for details.).

Shortly after 2000, 23 March 1986, Task Force 60 detected the Libyan La Combattante IIg-class fast missile attack craft Waheed departing from its base at Misratah and heading toward the U.S. surface action group at 24 kn. The Waheed carried four Otomat anti-ship missiles with a 460-lb. warhead and a range of nearly 40 kn. Given the threat to the surface action group, Task Force 60 launched a four-aircraft air strike that sank the Waheed. Also, shortly after 2200, Task Force 60 detected the missile tracking radars at Sirte going active. Task Force 60 launched a four-aircraft air strike that destroyed the radar site using a barrage of HARM anti-radiation missiles. At 2235, a TF-60 two-aircraft air strike heavily damaged a Nanuchka-class corvette armed with Styx anti-ship missile that had depart from Benghazi. Styx missiles have a range of 24 kn and were armed armed with a 1,100-pound warhead. Finally, two additional unidentified surface contacts were detected and attacked to conclude TF-60 operations for 23 March 1986.

On 24 March 1986, Task Force 60 launched follow-up air strikes against the missile radar-tracking site Sirte at 0047. At 0600, Task Force detected the Nanuchka-class missile corvette Ean Mara proceeding north-west from Benghazi at 24 kn. An A-6E attack bomber disabled the Ean Mara with a pair of Rockeye cluster bombs {pictured). This was the final combat action for Operation Prairie Fire.  Task Force 60 operated unchallenged below Muammar Gaddafi's Line of Death in the Gulf of Sidre, and Attain Document III ended on 27 March 1986.
 * Battle Force Zulu - Operation Prairie Fire

Operation El Dorado Canyon
Following the Lybian-supported terrorist bombing of the La Belle discothèque in West Berlin, Germany, on 5 April 1986, Task Force 60 participated in Operation El Dorado Canyon, a series of punitive air-strikes against Libya. This joint Air Force-Navy operation involved TF-60 and the 48th Fighter Wing (48 TFW) based at RAF Lakenheath, England, and it was under tactical command of Vice Admiral Frank Kelso, the commander of the U.S. Sixth Fleet. For Operation El Dorado Canyon, Task Force 60 consisted of the USS Coral Sea (CV-43) and USS America (CV-66) carrier battle groups under the command of Rear Admiral Henry H. Mauz, Jr. While planning for the operation continued, Task Force 60 began strike training in the Mediterranean Sea on 12 April 1886.

On 15 April 1986, Task Force 60 launched over 70 aircraft for Operation El Dorado Canyon. While its main focus were military targets in Benghazi, Task Force 60 also provided support to the the Air Force air strikes against military targets in Tripoli. This included suppressing Lybia's air defenses with its EA-6B and EA-3B aircraft (pictured), as well as aerial battle-space coordination with its E-2C aircraft (pictured). Task Force 60 air strike on the Benina Airfield destroyed up to four Mig-23s, two Mi-8 helicopters, and one F-27 transport aircraft while cratering the airfield's runway. Task Force 60 completed all of its assignments without experiencing any losses during Operation El Dorado Canyon.

On its 25the anniversary, Joseph T. Stanik described Operation El Dorado Canyon as being "America’s First Strike Against Terrorism" while noting the contribution of Task Force 60:

"Finally, the U.S. Sixth Fleet—specifically Task Force 60—played an indispensable role in the confrontation with Gadhafi. The battle force, which did not require approval from foreign governments for its movements, established a commanding presence off the coast of Libya. While on station, it exerted a powerful influence on Gadhafi, exacted 'swift and effective retribution' against units of the Libyan military that meant harm, and during El Dorado Canyon projected destructive power ashore. After fulfilling each of its missions, Task Force 60 withdrew to peaceful waters."

In a contemporary coda to Operation El Dorado Canyon and Task Force 60, a New York Times article dated 29 April 1986 noted the presence of three aircraft carriers while observing:


 * American naval forces in the Mediterranean are being watched closely this week as some Reagan Administration officials have suggested that any resurgence of terrorism attributed to Libya could lead to military retaliation.

It was further reported that the carrier Forrestal had recently completed the bilateral American-Egyptian naval exercise Sea Wind. During this exercise, carrier-based aircraft flew directly toward the Libyan coast to provoke a reaction from the Libyan air-defense radar system.
 * Task Force 60, 1986

1989 Gulf of Sidra incident
On 4 January 1989, Task Force 60's John F. Kennedy carrier battle group detected an unknown group of aircraft closing rapidly on the battle group. Two F-14 fighters from squadron VF-32 were vectored and identified the bogeys as a pair of Libyan MiG-23 fighters from Al Bumbah. Unlike more recent interceptions, these Libyan aircraft were aggressive and maintained their high rate of closure on the American aircraft. Interpreting the Libyans' intent as hostile, the F-14 engaged the MiG-23, and in the ensuing dogfight, the two MiG-23s were shot down.

Achille Lauro incident
On the orders of Ronald Reagan, the plane carrying the hijackers was intercepted by F-14 Tomcats from the VF-74 "BeDevilers" and the VF-103 "Sluggers" of Carrier Air Wing 17, based on the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga, and directed to land at Naval Air Station Sigonella, a NATO base in Sicily, where the hijackers were arrested by the Italians after a disagreement between American and Italian authorities. The other passengers on the plane (including the hijackers' leader, Muhammad Zaidan) were allowed to continue on to their destination,

Operation Provide Comfort
In the aftermath of the 1991 Persian Gulf War, uprisings in Iraq resulted in an Iraqi military response towards the rebels in both northern and southern Iraq. Fearing a massacre like what had happened during the 1988 Anfal campaign, millions of Kurds fled towards the Turkish border. On 3 March 1991, General Norman Schwarzkopf, USA, warned the Iraqis that Coalition aircraft would shoot down Iraqi military aircraft flying over the country. On 20 March, an American F-15C Eagle fighter shot down an Iraqi Air Force Su-22 Fitter fighter-bomber over northern Iraq. On 22 March, another F-15 destroyed a second Su-22 and the pilot of an Iraqi PC-9 trainer bailed out after being approached by American fighters. On 5 April, the UN passed United Nations Resolution 688, calling on Iraq to end repression of its population. On 6 April 1991, Operation Provide Comfort began to bring humanitarian relief to the Kurds. Additionally, a No-Fly Zone was established by the United States, the United Kingdom, and France north of the 36th parallel.

Operation Provide Comfort ended on 24 July 1991.

Operation Provide Comfort II
Operation Provide Comfort II began on 24 July 1991, the same day that Operation Provide Comfort ended. This operation was primarily military in nature, and its mission was to prevent Iraqi aggression against the Kurds.

The operation ended officially on 31 December 1996 at the request of the Government of Turkey who wanted to improve relations with Iran and Iraq. It was followed by Operation Northern Watch, which began on 1 January 1997 with the mission of enforcing the northern no-fly zone.

Operation Provide Promise
Operation Provide Promise was a humanitarian relief operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Yugoslav Wars, from 2 July 1992, to 9 January 1996, which made it the longest running humanitarian airlift in history.

Operation Deny Flight
Operation Deny Flight was a NATO to enforce the United Nations (UN) no-fly zone over Bosnia and Herzegovina. The United Nations and later expanded the mission of the operation to include providing close air support for UN troops in Bosnia and carrying out coercive air strikes against targets in Bosnia. The operation took place between 12 April 1993 and 20 December 1995, and it involved twelve NATO members.

Operation Deliberate Force
Operation Deliberate Force was the was a sustained air campaign conducted by NATO to undermine the military capability of the Army of the Republika Srpska (VRS), which had threatened and attacked UN-designated "safe areas" in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Bosnian War. This operation was carried out between 30 August and 20 September 1995, involving 400 aircraft and 5,000 personnel from 15 nations, under the command of Admiral Leighton W. Smith, USN.

Operation Noble Anvil
Operation Noble Anvil was the U.S. designation for Operation Allied Force, NATO's military operation against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War that took from March 24, 1999 to June 10, 1999.

Operationally, Task Force 60 was the Battle Force for the U.S. Sixth Fleet. The TF-60 commander had operational control of all naval forces at sea in the Mediterranean Sea, including the USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71) carrier battle group when it arrived in theater on 4 April 1999. For allied air combat missions, the Commander Allied Air Forces Southern Europe was also the Combined Force Air Component Commander (CFACC) and controlled the Combined Air Operations Center (CAOC) and all of the allied air forces in the NATO southern region, including Task Force 60. Beginning in

Global War on Terrorism and the 21st Centrury
Currently, Task Force 60 is commanded by the commodore of Destroyer Squadron 60 unless the commander of a carrier strike group enters the Mediterranean Sea and consequently assumes command of Task Force 60. For example, in 2000, then-Captain Kevin M. Quinn served as the commodore of Destroyer Squadron 28, and during that squadron's deployment to the U.S. Sixth Fleet, he assumed command of Task Force 60. As Commander TF-60, Quinn led a Joint Task Force to interdict terrorist-associated shipping throughout the Mediterranean Sea. In November 2007, the guided-missile destroyer USS Forrest Sherman (DDG-98) circumnavigated the African continent while performing theater security operations with local military forces as the flagship of Task Group 60.5, the U.S. Navy's Southeast Africa task force.

Operation Iraqi Freedom
For Operation Iraqi Freedom, the 2003 coalition invasion of Iraq, Task Force 60 was designated Combined Task Force 160 (CTF-60) (pictured) under the overall command of Rear Admiral John D. Stufflebeem. Operating from the eastern Mediterranean, the mission of CTF-160 was to provide combat air support to the ground campaign operating in northern Iraq. Combined Task Force 160 consisted of the USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71) and USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75) carrier strike groups, with the Truman strike group carrying out daytime flight operations and the Theodore Roosevelt strike group carrying out night-time flight operations. On 19 March 2003, Harry S. Truman Carrier Strike Group and its embarked Carrier Air Wing 3 (CVW-3) began conducting combat missions in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Over the next 30 days, the Truman strike group dropped more than 700 LT of ordnance in support of U.S. coalition ground forces in northern Iraq, the most ordanace delivered by any carrier strike group during the operation. During that 30 day period, airwing aircraft flew nearly 1,300 combat sorties. In total, the Truman strike group spent a total 89 consecutive days at sea without a port call during Operation Iraqi Freedom.

For the Theodore Roosevelt strike group, Operation Iraqi Freedom represented a culmination of a greatly accelerated post-overhaul, pre-deployment training schedule. On 22 March 2003, a 20-aircraft strike force destroyed Iraqi command-and-control and infrastructure targets, including one of presidential palace complexes, as well as one of the primary Iraqi AM broadcasting stations. When the carrier Theodore Roosevelt and Carrier Air Wing Eight (CVW-8) returned home on 29 May 2003, the Theodore Roosevelt strike group had flown more than 6,500 sorties (1,003 combat sorties), compiled more than 15,000 flight hours, and delivered more than 500 LT of ordnance.

Summarizing his force's accomplishments during Operation Iraqi Freedom, Admiral Stufflebeem called Task Force 60 "the largest U.S. Navy battle force assembled in the Mediterranean for combat since World War II."

Africa Partnership Station
Task Force 60 provides ships and manpower for the Africa Partnership Station (APS) initiative. This effort includes naval support for U.S. Africa Command’s training and security assistance operations involving western Africa nations. The first Africa Partnership Station began when Task Group 60.4 departed Naples, Italy, under the command of Captain John Nowell on 29 October 2007. The task group included its flagship, the USS Fort McHenry (LSD-43) (pictured), and the USS Swift (HSV-2), a high-speed transport. Task Group 60.4 visited Senegal, Liberia, Ghana, Cameroon, Gabon, Angola, and Sao Tome and Principe. Africa Partnership Station 2007 developed cooperative partnerships among the regional maritime services while improving safety and security for the host nations. APS 2007 also supported over 20 humanitarian assistance projects during this deployment.