User:MargaretTulliver/Bordetella pertussis

Treatment (Draft)
From Bordetella pertussis

Whooping cough is treated by macrolides, for example erythromycin. The therapy is most effective when started during the incubation period or the catarrhal period. When applied during the paroxysmal cough phase, the time of reconvalescence is not affected, only further transmission is reduced to 5-10 days after infection.

-added "5-10 days after infection" learned from the source: Finger H, von Koenig CH (1996). "Bordetell". In Baron S (ed.). Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. ISBN 978-0-9631172-1-2. PMID 21413270.

Prevention (Draft)
From Bordetella pertussis

Pertussis vaccine has been widely used since the second half of the 20th century. The first vaccines were whole-cell vaccines, composed of chemically inactivated bacteria. They are being replaced by acellular vaccines which have, recently, shown a decreased time of immunity. These acellular vaccines are composed of purified surface antigens, mainly fimbriae, filamentous haemaglutinin, pertactin and pertussis toxin. It is part of the diphtheria, tetanus, and acellular pertussis (DTaP) immunization.

Added: As Bordetella pertussis attacks the airway of the host, factors in the vaccine such as filamentous haemaggutinin (Fha) and fimbrea aid in dampening effects. Fha can act as an anti-inflammatory against irritation that may occur while fimbrea decreases the concentration of B. pertussis.

Preventative vaccines as states above are available to the public; however these are only temporarily effective vaccines. Those being administered these vaccines are recommended to receive boosters as they are only viable for about 6 years. Cases for infants are common and often have serious impacts as they are more susceptible to ''Bordetella pertussis. Therefore, to decrease likelihood of contracting and spreading this disease, new parents may be recommended to receive the preventative vaccine.''

Bibliography:

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26906206/

- talks about how filamentous hemaglutinin (Fha) aids in resistance to human immune system especially in the air ways regarding inflammation

- research about this factor can help transform vaccines to be more effective

https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=10&sid=8b8c53b1-94d2-4382-aae8-e3e750676625%40redis

- if use preventative vaccine, still susceptible to retracting whooping cough after 6 years. booster vaccines are needed.

- infant suscepitbily increased and is fatal. recommend parents take vaccine

History (Draft)
Through looking at the different types of Bordetella, B. pertussis was found closely related to Bordetella bronchiseptica and Bordetella parapertussis. Developments in genome sequencing allowed B. pertussis to be studied more. Evidence of mutations through studying the gene showed missing genomes present on the DNA strand. A study by Bart et al., revealed that 25% of the genes on the Tohama I sequence were missing in comparison to the ancestor of B.pertussis.

FIND: historical importance / What do these missing sequences correlate to as far as virulence or anti microbial properties.

Transmission (DRAFT)
Establishing and maintaining the B. pertussis pathogen is difficult considering it only naturally infects humans and there are no animal reservoirs to extend transmission in its environment. In order for the infection to be spread to a host, the transmission chain must be uninterrupted and B. pertussis must be in the appropriate conditions for survival.

(add something about Bvg regulating the change in  phenotype to allow for B. pertussis to survive in the air while being transmitted…)

The evolution of B. pertussis has created a much more contagious pathogen by changing genes controlled by the BvgAS system.

Pertussis was first speculated to be transmitted by airborne particles in 1916.

Sources:

Trainor EA, Nicholson TL, Merkel TJ. Bordetella pertussis transmission. Pathog Dis. 2015 Nov;73(8):ftv068. doi: 10.1093/femspd/ftv068. Epub 2015 Sep 14. PMID: 26374235; PMCID: PMC4626651.

https://academic.oup.com/femspd/article/73/8/ftv068/2467637?login=false

Belcher T, Dubois V, Rivera-Millot A, Locht C, Jacob-Dubuisson F. Pathogenicity and virulence of Bordetella pertussis and its adaptation to its strictly human host. Virulence. 2021 Dec;12(1):2608-2632. doi: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1980987. PMID: 34590541; PMCID: PMC8489951.

Transmission #2 (crl89512)
Transmission involves the spread of respiratory aerosols (CITE) by a host that sneezes or coughs to infect another nearby host.

In order for the infection to be spread to a host, the transmission chain must be uninterrupted and B. pertussis must be in the appropriate conditions for survival.

In order to understand how B. pertussis survives in order to be transmitted, it is important to identify if it lives within or outside of a host’s cells. This leads to the classification of a pathogen as intracellular or extracellular. When determining if a pathogen is considered an intracellular or extracellular microorganism, its transmission mechanism and preferred location of colonization.

The incapacity for B. pertussis to live within amoeba has led to its classification as an extracellular pathogen. Although B. pertussis is considered an extracellular pathogen, the evolution of human population density and gene modification has contributed to its ability to survive within respiratory epithelial and phagocytic cells.

Establishing and maintaining the B. pertussis pathogen population is difficult considering it only naturally infects humans and there are no animal reservoirs to extend transmission in its environment.

Transmission rates are expected to rise as the host experiences their most contagious stage when the total viable count of B. pertussis is at its highest. After the host coughs, the bacteria in their respiratory airways will be exposed into the air by way of aerosolized droplets, threatening nearby humans.

Evolution (draft: crl89512)
It is believed that the genus Bordetella may have evolved from ancestors that could survive in the soil according to 16S rRNA gene sequencing data. 16S rRNA is a component of all bacteria that allows for the comparison of phyla within a sample. In this case, it was determined that although pathogenic bordetellae, like B. Pertussis have adapted to specifically infect humans, they are still able to multiply and thrive in soil conditions.

Metabolic, virulence, and immunity evolutions due to gene loss and vaccine pressure have made B. pertussis very standardized and able to survive specifically in the upper human respiratory tract.

Looking at the B. bronchiseptica complex has allowed scientists to study how the bacteria has evolved and how the BvgAS system alters gene expression. Genes controlled by the BvgAS system have transformed B. pertussis into a much more contagious pathogen and are responsible for regulating the genes expressed by B. pertussis and can influence metabolic processes within the pathogen.

(put under "pertussis" heading)

A human host can exhibit a range of physical reactions as a result of the  B. pertussis pathogen, depending on how well their body is equipped to fight infection.

Mistakes in DTaP Vaccine Causing Increased Susceptibility - Baria
In the 20th century two articles published by Margaret Pittman, who lead pertussis research in the NIH and FDA, suggested that pertussis was a pertussis toxin mediated disease. From this research the idea came forth that, because of its toxin mediated origin, a less reactogenic acellular vaccine could be produced. The goal was that its effect on the bacterium would be just as potent as previous vaccines produced, like the whole-cell pertussis vaccine (DTwP) made availible in the 1930s. Japan was then the first nation to produce a less reactogenic vaccine to target pertussis: the [https://www.cdc.gov/diphtheria/index.html#:~:text=Diphtheria%20is%20a%20serious%20infection,and%20adults%20to%20prevent%20diphtheria. diphtheria], [https://www.cdc.gov/tetanus/index.html#:~:text=Tetanus%20is%20an%20infection%20caused,open%20the%20mouth%20or%20swallow. tetanus] pertussis vaccine (DTaP). The DTaP vaccine was tested for its efficacy in the 1990s and approved for its use in many nations including the United States. Since this approval for routine use in the U.S., several pertussis epidemics have occured within the last 13 years. Studies done regarding these epidemics have consistently addressed the cause of these epidemics to be due to the shortcomings the DTaP vaccine held such as the unadequet amount of antigens present in the vaccine as well as the type of cellular immune response it produced. Now, we see that the childeren who were recieved the DTapP vaccine have increased vulnerability to pertussis infection for the remainder of their life.

Sources:

James D Cherry, The 112-Year Odyssey of Pertussis and Pertussis Vaccines—Mistakes Made and Implications for the Future, Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, Volume 8, Issue 4, September 2019, Pages 334–341, https://doi.org/10.1093/jpids/piz005