User:Markjgraham hmb/Restricted Data

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ARCHIVAL SOURCES AND ABBREVIATIONS

AHC Arthur Holly Compton papers, University Archives, Washington University in St. Louis, MO.

ARC National Archives and Records Administration, Archival Research Catalog, online at http://catalog.archives.gov.

BCF Bush-Conant File Relating the Development of the Atomic Bomb, 1940–1945, Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Record Group 227, microfilm publication M1392, Washington, DC: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d. (ca. 1990).

CHNSA Chuck Hansen papers, Record 408, National Security Archive, Gelman Library, George Washington University, Washington, DC.

CTS Correspondence (“Top Secret”) of the Manhattan Engineer District, 1942–1946, microfilm publication M1109, Washington, DC: National Archives and Records Administration, 1980.

DEL Office files of David E. Lilienthal, Records of the Office of the Chairman, Records of the Atomic Energy Commission, Record Group 326, NARACP.

DELCFCRF Chairman’s (Formerly Classified) Reading File, December 1946–July 1950, Office files of David E. Lilienthal, Records of the Office of the Chairman, Records of the Atomic Energy Commission, Record Group 326, NARACP.

DLR Dixy Lee Ray papers, Hoover Institution Archives, Palo Alto, CA.

DOEA Department of Energy Archives, Germantown, MD (accessed with the aid of Terrence Fehner).

DSAEC Division of Security, Records of the Atomic Energy Commission, Record Group 326, NARACP.

EOL Ernest O. Lawrence papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

GD Office files of Gordon Dean, Records of the Commissioners, Records of the Atomic Energy Commission, Record Group 326, NARACP.

GDDRS U.S. Declassified Documents Reference Online (formerly Declassified Documents Reference System), Primary Source Media, Gale Group, online at https://www.gale.com/c/us-declassified-documents-online.

HBF Harrison-Bundy Files Relating to the Development of the Atomic Bomb, 1942–1946, microfilm publication M1108, Washington, DC: National Archives and Records Administration, 1980.

HMNSA Howard Morland papers, Record 48, National Security Archive, Gelman Library, George Washington University, Washington, DC.

JCAE Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Executive (Unpublished) Hearings. Unless otherwise indicated, these formerly classified transcripts have been accessed through the ProQuest Congressional Legislative & Executive Publications database.

JBC Joan Bromberg collection, “Materials Collected for Fusion: science, politics, and the invention of a new energy source, 1922–1982,” AR 297 z, Niels Bohr Library and Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD.

JRO J. Robert Oppenheimer papers, MSS35188, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

KAB Keith A. Brueckner papers, MSS 0094, Mandeville Special Collections Library, University of California, San Diego.

KFFBI Klaus Fuchs FBI file, 65–58805, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, DC.

KMSFD KMS Fusion documents, Documents Relating to the KMS Fusion Project, Inc., IH301, Niels Bohr Library and Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD.

LLNLA Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Archives, Livermore, California. (Some documents available through OPENNET.)

LRG Leslie R. Groves papers, Record Group 200, NARACP.

LSP Leo Szilard papers, MSS 32, Special Collections & Archives, University of California, San Diego Library. Citations refer to folders in the digitized version of the collection, available online at: https://library.ucsd.edu/dc/collection/bb0752385q.

MEDR Manhattan Engineer District records, Records of the Army Corps of Engineers, Record Group 77, NARACP.

MDH Manhattan District History, ca. 1947–1948. This document has been partially declassified over the years, first as part of the Manhattan Project: Official history and documents microfilm collection in 1977 (see the entry under books), but in 2013 the Department of Energy began to release the remaining books (often heavily redacted), available online at https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan_district. Contextual information (and a mirror of the files) can be found in Wellerstein, “General Groves’ secret history.”

NARACP National Archives and Records Administration, Archives II, College Park, MD.

NARADC National Archives and Records Administration, Archives I, Washington, DC.

NTA Nuclear Testing Archive, Nevada Site Office of the U.S. Department of Energy/National Nuclear Security Administration, Las Vegas, NV. Documents are indexed on OPENNET, sometimes available online, sometimes a request is necessary.

OHCNBL Oral History Collection, Niels Bohr Library and Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD.

OPENNET U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Environment, Health, Safety and Security, OpenNet System. Online at https://www.osti.gov/opennet/.

OSAEC46 Office of the Secretary, General Correspondence, 1946–1951, Records of the Atomic Energy Commission, Record Group 326, NARACP.

OSAEC51 Office of the Secretary, General Correspondence, 1951–1958, Records of the Atomic Energy Commission, Record Group 326, NARACP.

OSAECM Office of the Secretary, Minutes of the Meetings of the Atomic Energy Commission, Records of the Atomic Energy Commission, Record Group 326, NARACP.

RCT Richard C. Tolman papers, 10105-MS, Caltech Institute Archives, Pasadena, CA.

RFB Robert F. Bacher papers, Caltech Institute Archives, Pasadena, CA.

RFBAEC Office files of Robert F. Bacher, Records of the Commissioners, Records of the Atomic Energy Commission, Record Group 326, NARACP.

RJCAE Records of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Record Group 128, NARADC.

SCAE Records of the Special Committee on Atomic Energy, 79th Congress, Record Group 46, NARADC.

WWWAEC Office files of William W. Waymack, Records of the Commissioners, Records of the Atomic Energy Commission, Record Group 326, NARACP.

VTNA Vanderbilt Television News Archive, Vanderbilt University, online at http://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu.

Note that in some instances, specific documents have been retrieved from the aforementioned archives only by Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests by the author. These are indicated in the text with their FOIA identification number alongside the archival listing. When possible I have tried to refer to locations of documents that do not require FOIA requests.

Over time, some of the digital resources have, predictably, gone dead. In some cases, this was by deliberate action or neglect by the US government. In practically all cases, I have maintained a backup copy of any documents cited here, and in some cases, have worked to make copies of entire databases. Should a scholar or other interested party find themselves unable to access the cited information, they should seek me out.

Congressional testimony, including formerly classified sessions of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, was obtained through the ProQuest Congressional Legislative & Executive Publications database if no other archival source is given (some Executive Session transcripts are contained only in the NARA Congressional records, and indicated as such). Newspaper accounts from the Boston Globe, Chicago Tribune, Los Angeles Times, New York Times, Wall Street Journal, and Washington Post were obtained through the ProQuest Historical Newspapers database. Some newspaper accounts (smaller newspapers, generally) were obtained through NewspaperArchive.com.

I have generally put only scholarly articles into the bibliography. Articles used primarily as primary sources alone have been cited fully in the footnote text.

In some books that rely on previously classified sources, historians have indicated the original classification markings on whatever documents they used. I have not done so here, both because I am not entirely sure what the value would be (in the few cases where the specific classification is important, I have noted it in the text), and because it is often difficult to know what the “original” classifications were, in any case. By the time I have seen a document, it has likely passed through the hands of several reviewers, at several different times in the past, each potentially changing classification categories (mostly an act of downgrading, but occasionally other activities, like “transclassification,” have taken place, like retroactively adding the “Restricted Data” designation to documents produced prior to its legislative creation). In theory, any given document will tell you, in its array of stamps and signatures and other bureaucratic graffiti that adorns it, the history of its own declassification. In practice, this is very inconsistent.

ARTICLES

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Asada, Sado. “The shock of the atomic bomb and Japan’s decision to surrender: A reconsideration.” Pacific Historical Review 67, no. 4 (November 1998): 477–512.

Badash, Lawrence, Elizabeth Hodes, and Adolph Tiddens. “Nuclear fission: Reaction to the discovery of 1939.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 130, no. 2 (1986): 196–231.

Berger, Albert. “The Astounding investigation: The Manhattan Project’s confrontation with science fiction.” Analog Science Fiction/Science Fact 104, no. 9 (September 1984): 125–137.

Bernstein, Barton J. “The quest for security: American foreign policy and international control of atomic energy, 1942–1946.” Journal of American History 60, no. 4 (March 1974): 1003–1044.

———. “Reconsidering the ‘Atomic General’: Leslie R. Groves.” Journal of Military History 67, no. 3 (July 2003): 883–920.

———. “Roosevelt, Truman, and the atomic bomb, 1941–1945: A reinterpretation.” Political Science Quarterly 90, no. 1 (Spring 1975): 23–69.

Bernstein, Jeremy. “John von Neumann and Klaus Fuchs: An unlikely collaboration.” Physics in Perspective 12, no. 1 (March 2010): 36–50.

Boskey, Bennett. “Inventions and the atom.” Columbia Law Review 50, no. 4 (April 1950): 433–477.

———. “Patents under the new Atomic Energy Act.” Journal of the Patent Office Society 36, no. 12 (December 1954): 867–881.

Brueckner, Keith A. “A beginning for ICF by laser.” In Inertial confinement nuclear fusion: A historical approach by its pioneers, edited by Guillermo Velarde and Natividad Carpintero Santamaría, 93–101. London: Foxwell & Davies, 2007.

Burr, William. “1960s ‘Nth Country Experiment’ Foreshadows Today’s Concerns Over the Ease of Nuclear Proliferation,” (1 July 2003). National Security Archive, George Washington University, online at https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/news/20030701/.

———. “The atomic bomb and the end of World War II.” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book no. 162 (5 August 2005, updated 4 August 2015), National Security Archive, George Washington University, online at https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu//NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/.

———. “The gas centrifuge secret: Origins of a U.S. policy of nuclear denial, 1954–1960,” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book no. 518 (29 June 2015), National Security Archive, George Washington University, online at: https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/nukevault/ebb518-the-gas-centrifuge-secret-origins-of-US-policy-of-nuclear-denial-1954-1960/.

———. “The ‘labors of Atlas, Sisyphus, or Hercules’? US gas-centrifuge policy and diplomacy, 1954–60.” International History Review 37, no. 3 (2015): 431–457.

Burr, William, Thomas S. Blanton, and Stephen I. Schwartz. “The costs and consequences of nuclear secrecy.” In Atomic audit: The costs and consequences of U.S. nuclear weapons since 1940, edited by Stephen I. Schwartz, 433–483. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1998.

Burton, Shirley J., Susan H. Karren, and Joseph D. Suster. “Following the paper trail west: Using archival sources for nuclear history.” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 87, no. 1 (January 1994): 35–38.

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Coleman, Earle E. “The ‘Smyth Report’: A descriptive check list.” Princeton University Library Chronicle 37, no. 3 (1976): 219–230.

Craig, Campbell. “The atom bomb as policy maker: FDR and the road not taken.” In The Age of Hiroshima, edited by Michael D. Gordin and G. John Ikenberry, 19–33. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020.

Daniels, Mario. “Controlling knowledge, controlling people: Travel restrictions of U.S. scientists and national security.” Diplomatic History 43, no. 1 (January 2019): 57–82.

De Geer, Lars-Erik. “The radioactive signature of the hydrogen bomb.” Science and Global Security 2, no. 4 (1991): 351–363.

Dennis, Michael Aaron. “Secrecy and science revisited: From politics to historical practice and back.” In Secrecy and knowledge production, edited by Judith Reppy, 1–16. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Peace Studies: Occasional Paper 23, 1999.

Downey, Gary L. “Reproducing cultural identity in negotiating nuclear power: The Union of Concerned Scientists and emergency core cooling.” Social Studies of Science 18, no. 2 (May 1988): 231–264.

Fox, John F., Jr. “Unique unto itself: The records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation 1908 to 1945.” Journal of Government Information 30 (2004): 470–481.

Galison, Peter. “Removing knowledge.” Critical Inquiry 31 (Autumn 2004): 229–243.

———. “Secrecy in three acts.” Social Research 77, no. 3 (Fall 2010): 941–974.

Galison, Peter, and Barton Bernstein. “In any light: Scientists and the decision to build the Superbomb, 1942–1954.” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 19, no. 1 (1988): 267–347.

Galison, Peter, and Robb Moss, directors. Secrecy. Cambridge, MA: Redacted Pictures, 2008. DVD.

Gieryn, Thomas F. “Boundaries of science.” In Handbook of science and technology studies, edited by Sheila Jasanoff, 393–444. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995.

Goldberg, Stanley. “General Groves and the atomic West: The making and meaning of Hanford.” In The atomic West, edited by Bruce Hevly and John Findlay, 39–89. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1998.

———. “Inventing a climate of opinion: Vannevar Bush and the decision to build the bomb.” Isis 83, no. 3 (September 1992): 429–452.

Goodman, Michael S. “The grandfather of the hydrogen bomb? Anglo-American intelligence and Klaus Fuchs.” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 34, no. 1 (September 2004): 1–22.

———. “Who is trying to keep what secret from whom and why? MI5-FBI relations and the Fuchs Case.” Journal of Cold War Studies 7, no. 3 (2005): 124–146.

Green, Harold P. “AEC information control regulations.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 24, no. 5 (May 1968): 41–43.

———. “‘Born classified’ in the AEC: A legal perspective.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 37, no. 10 (December 1981): 28–30.

———. “The AEC proposals—A threat to scientific freedom.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 23, no. 8 (October 1967): 15–17.

Gusterson, Hugh. “Death of the authors of death: Prestige and creativity among nuclear weapons scientists.” In Scientific authorship: Credit and intellectual property in science, edited by Mario Biagioli and Peter Galison, 281–307. New York: Routledge, 2003.

Hacker, Barton C. “Writing the history of a controversial program: Radiation safety, the AEC, and nuclear weapons testing.” Public Historian 14, no. 1 (Winter 1992): 31–53.

Henderson, Kathryn. “Flexible sketches and inflexible data bases: Visual communication, conscription devices, and boundary objects in design engineering.” Science, Technology, and Human Values 16, no. 4 (Autumn 1991): 448–473.

Herken, Gregg. “The University of California, the federal weapons labs, and the founding of the atomic West.” In The atomic West, edited by Bruce Hevly and John Findlay, 119–135. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1998.

Hewlett, Richard G. “‘Born classified’ in the AEC: A historian’s view.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 37, no. 10 (December 1981): 20–27.

Hewlett, Richard G., and Jo Anne McCormick Quatannens. “Richard G. Hewlett: Federal historian.” Public Historian 19, no. 1 (Winter 1997): 53–83.

Hirsch, Daniel, and William G. Mathews. “Who really gave away the secret?” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (January 1990): 23–30.

Hollinger, David A. “The defense of democracy and Robert K. Merton’s formulation of the scientific ethos.” In Science, Jews, and secular culture: Studies in mid-twentieth-century American intellectual history, 80–96. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996.

Hull, David. “Openness and secrecy in science: Their origins and limitations.” Science, Technology, and Human Values 10, no. 2 (Spring 1985): 4–13.

Iliffe, Rob. “In the warehouse: Privacy, property, and priority in the early Royal Society.” History of Science 30 (1992): 29–68.

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Jenkins, John. “Atomic energy is ‘moonshine’: What did Rutherford really mean?” Physics in Perspective 13 (2011): 128–145.

Kaiser, David. “The atomic secret in Red hands? American suspicions of theoretical physicists during the early Cold War.” Representations 90 (2005): 28–60.

Kemp, R. Scott. “The end of Manhattan: How the gas centrifuge changed the quest for nuclear weapons.” Technology and Culture 53, no. 2 (April 2012): 272–305.

———. “The nonproliferation emperor has no clothes: The gas centrifuge, supply-side controls, and the future of nuclear proliferation.” International Security 38, no. 4 (Spring 2014): 39–78.

———.“Opening a proliferation Pandora’s box: The spread of the Soviet-type gas centrifuge.” Nonproliferation Review 24, no. 1–2 (2017): 101–127.

Kevles, Daniel J. “The National Science Foundation and the debate over postwar research policy, 1942–1945: A political reinterpretation of Science–The Endless Frontier.” Isis 68, no. 1 (March 1977): 4–26.

Kidder, Ray E. “Laser fusion: The first ten years 1962–1972.” In Inertial confinement nuclear fusion: A historical approach by its pioneers, edited by Guillermo Velarde and Natividad Carpintero Santamaría, 49–68. London: Foxwell & Davies, 2007.

———. “Weapons of mass destruction, national security, and a free press.” Cardozo Law Review 26, no. 4 (2005): 1389–1399.

Kline, Ronald. “Construing ‘technology’ as ‘applied science’: Public rhetoric of scientists and engineers in the United States, 1880–1945.” Isis 86, no. 2 (June 1995): 194–221.

Krige, John. “Atoms for Peace, scientific internationalism, and scientific intelligence.” Osiris 21 (2006): 161–181.

———. “Hybrid knowledge: The transnational co-production of the gas centrifuge for uranium enrichment in the 1960s.” British Journal for the History of Science 45, no. 3 (September 2012): 337–357.

———. “The proliferation risks of gas centrifuge enrichment at the dawn of the NPT.” Nonproliferation Review 19, no. 2 (2012): 219–227.

———. “US technological superiority and the special nuclear relationship: Contrasting British and US policies for controlling the proliferation of gas-centrifuge enrichment.” International History Review 36, no. 2 (2014): 230–251.

Lee, Sabing H. “Protecting the private inventor under peacetime provisions of the Invention Secrecy Act.” Berkeley Technology Law Journal 12, no. 2 (1997): 345–411.

Lindl, John. “Development of the indirect-drive approach to inertial confinement fusion and target physics basis for ignition and gain.” Physics of Plasmas 2, no. 11 (November 1995): 3933–4024.

MacKenzie, Donald, and Graham Spinardi. “Tacit knowledge, weapons design, and the uninvention of nuclear weapons.” American Journal of Sociology 101, no. 1 (July 1995): 44–99.

Malloy, Sean. “‘A very pleasant way to die’: Radiation effects and the decision to use the atomic bomb against Japan.” Diplomatic History 36, no. 3 (June 2012): 515–545.

Masco, Joseph. “Lie detectors: On secrets and hypersecurity at Los Alamos.” Public Culture 14, no. 3 (2002): 441–467.

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Mink, Patsy T. “The Cannikin Papers: A case study in freedom of information.” In Secrecy and foreign policy, edited by Thomas M. Franck and Edward Weisband, 114–131. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974.

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Nuckolls, John H. “Contributions to the genesis and progress of ICF.” In Inertial confinement nuclear fusion: A historical approach by its pioneers, edited by Guillermo Velarde and Natividad Carpintero Santamaría, 1–48. London: Foxwell & Davies, 2007.

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Pollack, Joshua. “The secret treachery of A. Q. Khan.” Playboy (January/February 2012). Online at: http://carnegieendowment.org/files/the_secret%20treachery%20of%20aq%20khan.pdf.

Popp, Manfred. “Misinterpreted documents and ignored physical facts: The history of ‘Hitler’s atomic bomb’ needs to be corrected.” Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch 39 (2016): 265–282.

Pozen, David E. “The mosaic theory, national security, and the Freedom of Information Act.” Yale Law Journal 115, no. 3 (December 2005): 628–679.

Rankin, William. “The ‘person skilled in the art’ is really quite conventional: U.S. patent drawings and the persona of the inventor, 1870–2005.” In Making and unmaking intellectual property: Creative production in legal and cultural perspective, edited by Mario Biagioli, Peter Jaszi, and Martha Woodmansee, 55–75. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011.

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———. “Freedom of information, privacy, and official secrecy: The evolution of federal government information policy concepts.” Social Indicators Research 7, no. 1/4 (January 1980): 137–156.

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Streefland, Abel. “Putting the lid on the gas centrifuge: Classification of the Dutch ultracentrifuge project, 1960–1961.” In Cold War science and the transatlantic circulation of knowledge, edited by Jeroen van Dongen, 77–100. Boston: Brill, 2015.

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Turchetti, Simone. “‘For slow neutrons, slow pay’: Enrico Fermi’s patent and the U.S. atomic energy program, 1938–1953.” Isis 97, no. 1 (2006): 1–27.

———. “The invisible businessman: Nuclear physics, patenting practices, and trading activities in the 1930s.” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 37, no. 1 (2006): 153–172.

Twigge, Stephen. “A baffling experience: Technology transfer, Anglo-American nuclear relations, and the development of the gas centrifuge 1964–70.” History and Technology 19, no. 2 (2003): 151–163.

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———. “General Groves’ secret history.” Restricted data: The nuclear secrecy blog (5 September 2014). Online at: http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2014/09/05/general-groves-secret-history/.

———. “John Wheeler’s H-bomb blues.” Physics Today 72, no. 4 (2019): 42–51.

———. “The Kyoto misconception: What Truman knew, and didn’t know, about Hiroshima.” In The Age of Hiroshima, edited by Michael D. Gordin and G. John Ikenberry, 34–55. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020.

———. “Oppenheimer, unredacted: Part I—Finding the lost transcripts.” Restricted data: The nuclear secrecy blog (9 January 2015). Online at: http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2015/01/09/oppenheimer-unredacted-part-i/.

———. “Patenting the bomb: Nuclear weapons, intellectual property, and technological control.” Isis 99, no. 1 (March 2008): 57–87.

———.“A tale of openness and secrecy: The Philadelphia story.” Physics Today 65, no. 5 (2012): 47–53.

———. “The virtues of nuclear ignorance.” New Yorker (20 September 2016). Online at: http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/the-virtues-of-nuclear-ignorance.

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———. “Secret science: A classified community in the national laboratories.” Minerva 38, no. 4 (2000): 363–391.

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BOOKS AND MONOGRAPHS

Abraham, Itty. The making of the Indian atomic bomb: Science, secrecy and the postcolonial state. London: Zed Books, 1998.

Albright, Joseph, and Marcia Kunstel. Bombshell: The secret story of America’s unknown atomic spy conspiracy. New York: Times Books, 1997.

Alperovitz, Gar. The decision to use the bomb and the architecture of an American myth. New York: Knopf, 1995.

Anders, Roger M., ed. Forging the atomic shield: Excerpts from the office diary of Gordon E. Dean. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987.

Arkin, William. Nuclear battlefields: Global links in the arms race. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Press, 1985.

Badash, Lawrence, Joseph O. Hirschfelder, and Herbert P. Broida, eds. Reminiscences of Los Alamos, 1943–1945. Boston: Reidel, 1980.

Balogh, Brian. Chain reaction: Expert debate and public participation in American commercial nuclear power, 1945–1975. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Barker, Holly M. Bravo for the Marshallese: Regaining control in a post-nuclear, post-colonial world. Belmont, CA: Thomson, 2004.

Barnhart, Megan Kathleen. “‘To secure the benefits of science to the general welfare’: The scientists’ movement and the American public during the Cold War, 1945–1960.” PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 2007.

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