User:MarsandCadmium/Heshun Confederation

The Heshun Confederation (Chinese: 和顺总厅; pinyin: Héshùn zǒngtīng), or in its Hakka dialect (and known by the colonial Dutch) as Fo-sjoen, was an alliance of Chinese company federations in West Kalimantan. Established in 1776 and centered around the town of Montrado, it co-existed with the Mandor-based Lanfang kongsi, founded in 1777. It was officially subsumed into the Dutch East Indies in the Kongsi Wars during the mid-18th century. It was the most influential kongsi polity in West Borneo, with friendly ties being held with the Malays sultans and the indigenous Dayak s. At its formation, Heshun had approximately a population of 10,000, though by the 1850s that number may have been quintupled.

Etymology and classification
Initially, when the Heshun had multiple members, Dutch Sinologists referred to the Heshun as an alliance or confederation. Later accounts referred to them as only one polity, the Heshun kongsi/republic. In the early to mid 19th century, the Heshun name was replaced with Dagang, the only member in the confederation. Contemporary scholars prefer to refer the polity as the Heshun zongting (assembly hall), what the Heshun miners called themselves.

For three months, the confederation was renamed Guangfu (广福) by its fourth headmen, Hu Yalu, taken from "Guangxi" and "Fujian" as most workers in West Borneo came from these two provinces. The name was abolished following Yalu's abdication.

Members of the zongting
The zongting mostly comprised of large kongsi federations ranging from 250 to 800 workers. As time passed, smaller kongsi were subsumed into larger ones like of Dagang, Jielian, and Santiaogou. The fourteen initial members of the Heshun zongting were as follows:


 * Dagang 大港
 * Lao Bafen 老八分
 * Jiu Fentou 九分头
 * Shisanfen 十三分
 * Jielian 结连
 * Xin Bafen 新八分
 * Santiaogou 三条沟
 * Manhe 满和
 * Xinwu 新屋
 * Kengwei 坑尾
 * Shiwufen 十五分
 * Taihe 泰和
 * Lao Shisifen 老十四分
 * Shi’erfen 十二分

Smaller, private kongsi also paid allegiance and taxes to Heshun, as well as granting conscription of its members if needed. Known private mining kongsis were the Jinhe kongsi 金和, Dasheng kongsi 大盛公司, Guanghe kongsi 广和公司, Liufentou kongsi 六分头公司, and Bafentou kongsi 八分头公司. Most of these were dissolved or absorbed into larger kongsi.

Jielian and Xin Bafen were also initially the protectors of a number of kongsi based around the Larah region until the dissolution of both at the hands of Dagang. From then forth, Dagang became the protector of those kongsi, who became tangentially associated with the Heshun as well. The Larah kongsi are as follows:

* The third kongsi, Lintian kongsi of Bodok, had not been affiliated with the Heshun prior to 1850.
 * Yuanhe 元和
 * Zanhe 賛和
 * Yinghe 應和
 * Huihe 惠和
 * Shenghe 升和
 * Shuanghe 雙和
 * Xiawu 下屋 (not to be confused wih Dagang's Xiawu house)A chart of the members of the Heshun Confederation through its existence:

Background
In the mid-18th century, the sultans of Western Borneo, including Sambas, Sukadana, and Landak all imported Chinese laborers to work in gold and tin mines. These miners created hui, (fraternities imported from their Chinese homeland) for financial support and defense. These hui often limited membership to those who shared the same clan descendancy, spoke the same dialect, or came from the same village. There were at least 14 mining associations and 2 agricultural associations recorded on West Borneo before the formation of the Heshun zongting, those it may be reasonably assumed there existed up to at least 30 or 40.

Formation of the zongting
In 1776, fourteen established mining organizations, centered around the Sambas and Montrado regions, established an official alliance. Other smaller, private kongsi that possessed individual mines also joined the new zongting. The formation of these larger organizations was likely due to external threats from Dayaks and sectarian Chinese movements like the Tiandihui, who flourished among the Chinese diasporic communities. All kongsis retained their economic independence, but were also expected to recruit new members and fund new settlements for the benefit of the confederation.

One year after its foundation in 1777, Luo Fangbo, founder of the Lanfang Republic, threatened to attack Montrado, the main Heshun settlement. This failed to materialize.

Jielian-Heshun Conflict (1807)
By the time Wen Sencai became the 2nd headman of the Heshun, feuds between the most powerful kongsi (Santiaogou, Jielian, Shibafen, Xinwu, and Dagang) became more bitter. In 1807, a conflict broke out between Dagang and Jielian over the flooding of a Jielian camp from a water reservoir, resulting in the defeat of Dagang and its three kongsi allies. Jielian dissolved shortly after, however, and Dagang annexed its mining areas and split it among its three allies. Lao Shisifen, an ally of Jielian, also disbanded and were subsumed into the Xinwu / Xin Shisifen kongsi.

Dissolution of Xin Bafen (1808)
Despite Xin Bafen being an ally of the Dagang, the rising Dagang kongsi waged war upon them and its ally of Jiufentou in 1808. Dagang emerged victorious, and both were dissolved; Lao Bafen and Shisanfen also dissolved in the same year, all of whom were divided up by the Dagang, Xinwu, and Kengwei, though Dagang's ally Santiaogou was not allowed any land. The Larah kongsi, whom had once been under Xin Bafen and Jiufentou's supervision, subsequently came under Dagang's hegemony.

These two years changed the dynamics of the Heshun zongting. Out of the original fourteen, seven remained (Dagang, Kengwei, Santiaogou, Manhe, Xinwu, Shiwufen, and Taihe), and only Santiaogou and Dagang possessed any real power. When Liu Guibo, the third leader of the Heshun, attempted to reform Xinwu into the third power base by neogotiating with Kengwei, the opposition was so strong Guibo resigned after hiding for ten days in the assembly hall.

Liu Zhengbao and Hu Yalu's administration (1808-1819)
Following Guibo's resignation, Liu Zhengbao of Dagang was elected as third head of Heshun. Zhengbao's administration saw the coming and goings of several Dutch officers, like J. van Boekholtz, G. Muller, and C.J. Prediger, who all came to Montrado to assert Dutch authority, for fear of British influence following an interregnum. The latter two, Muller and Prediger, had quarrels over poll taxes as both had arrived at Montrado one after the other, and both demanded that the other's delegation was illegitimate. Muller's explosive behavior in particular led to the Chinese losing respect for the Dutch, despite the kongsis agreeing to fly a Dutch flag in Montrado's plaza.

When Zhengbao moved to China in 1818, Hu Yalu, a Fujianese artisan from Santiaogou, became the fourth leader. Yalu's leadership was short-lived due his attempts at changing the power dynamics of the kongsi. His renaming of Heshun to Guangfu, a compound of "Guangdong and Fujian", implied equal footing between the largely agricultural Gaungdongese inland, and the artisan-oriented Fujianese on the coast, and after three months, he was ousted.

Zhu Fenghua's administration (1819-1820)
Zhu Fenghua took on the leader of Heshun after Yalu's ejection, a famous commander from Santiaogou who participated in the invasion of Xin Bafen who subsequently became a secretary of Heshun. He was famed for maintaining warm relationships with the Sambas sultan at the time, Mohamad Ali-Tsafiudin, along with the Dutch who had only began surveying Borneo.

In January 1819, a contract signed between the Dutch and the sultan of Pontianak stipulated the re-invitation of Montrado Chinese to pay a poll tax, led by one General Nahuys, Resident of Yogyakarta, having replaced van Boekholtz. Despite a visit to Lanfang's Mandor, he realized that all Chinese in West Borneo had no intention of paying poll taxes. This was bad for both the Dutch, who saw a profit to be made off of the wealthy Chinese, and the Malay sultans, who were forced to give up piracy a few years prior. Hostilities heightened between the two and culminated in two failed attempts by Heshun to seize Mampawa.

Later that year, the new Dutch Commissioner E.J. Roesler arrived to mediate with the Chinese. Fenghua and his representatives agreed to all things asked, by Roesler cabled the central colonial government that they may not be trusted. Here he stated that the Heshun ought to be disbanded if the Dutch wanted to be taken seriously and proposed the requirement of a Dutch visa for all Chinese to visit Montrado. This was never realized, and the Chinese never paid the poll tax.

As no new Commissioners arrived to Montrado, the kongsi were left to their own devices. Fenghua took this to advance his own goals of reforming Santiaogou's waxing power and attempted to seize his title for life. As almost all kongsis, led by Dagang, went against this, Fenghua was forced to flee to Sambas. The new appointed Magistrate, J.H. Tobias, saw the seriousness of the conflict but decided not to interfere.

Expedition to Lara and fleeing of Santiaogou (1821)
Zhengbao obliged to return for leadership after Fenghua's escape. Even as Santiaogou protested, they cannot match a legion of soldiers Zhengbao arrived along with, and Dagang re-emerged as the primary power of Heshun. Fenghua, still in exile in Sambas, exacted his hoped revenge through exploiting his amicable relationships with the Sambas sultan. Accusing the Dagang of scheming to annex the rich mining country of Sepang, whom had been "held" by Santiaogou, he promised the sultan and his brothers promises of riches, despite Sepang (and the greater region of Larah) were still under Dagang's juristidction. Not only this, but after conquering Seminis and Lumar, the Dagang militia will then march to Sambas (an assertation later discovered by Tobias to be false). In May 1822, the Santiaogou army, along with a Dutch vanguard, arrived at Larah, to find the Dagang army already station there. However, with the death of its commander Lieutenant von Kielbeg, they promptly returned to Sambas. Santiaogou, embarrassed, decided to take their assets and flee from Montrado during the June 23, 1822, on the day of the Dragon Boat Festival, to the outskirts of Montrado in Gunung Penaring.

Santiaogou's members reconvened in the Xiawu kongsi, whose prior relations with Santiaogou has earned them the nickname of "Little Santiaogou". Here, Tobias attempted to convene all members of the conflict to settle the matter. Originally siding with the Santiaogou, Tobias soon learned through careful hearings that the Santiaogou had indeed fooled the Dutch, and Tobias believed in it. In the end, he can only rebuke Dagang for their inappropriate actions, acceptably satisfying all parties, for the most part.

2nd Expedition to Lara and Montrado (1822)
Despite Heshun caving in to most of Tobias' demands and his own facade of favoring the Dagang more, he still sided with Zhu Fenghua secretly and hoped to put Santiaogou, the "good Chinese", in place of Montrado. Thus, when reports of Heshun miners having placed themselves into Larah again, Tobias ordered an expedition that he was sure he would win. The expedition, led by one General de Stuers, failed to catch the Dagang off guard and won a very pyrrhic victory after taking a Dagang stronghold.

Tobias again approved an expedition to Montrado, proposed by a defeated de Stuers, after a few months. After occupying Singakawang, they arrived at Montrado, where the Heshun leaders begrudgingly gave some of the items to de Stuers' demands. Four representatives were sent to exile in Batavia. After reading out several regulations that strengthened the Dutch authority in Montrado, including delaring the Heshun Confederation as "defunct", before burning down the main assembly hall, in 1823.

Van Grave's conflicts (1824-25)
Despite this, once Tobias left, the Dutch influence over Montrado remained very minimal. Tobias had ordered the construction of several Dutch outposts around West Borneo, all around Montrado, and despite a considerable increase in tax revenue from Montrado, it was still not nearly enough. M. van Grave, who was left in the absence of Tobias, proposed the dissolution of all mining kongsis and the unification of the Heshun kongsis, along with Singkawang, into a governmental district. This led to a violent reaction among the Chinese community in Montrado, but van Grave was not preturbed, and sent an expeditionary force to Singakawang, before being beaten back by the Chinese, and all fled back to Sambas. A repeat of past events occurred again; van Grave requested the construction of a road between Sambas and Montrado and a Dutch fortress near Montrado, as well as the banning of all further Chinese immgiration. This led to extremely negative responses from both Montrado and Lanfang at Mandor. Though conflicts continued to the summer of 1825, turbulence in Java led to the Batavian government to lay down a policy of non-interference between states it already had contracted with, which applied to the Chinese kongsi as well. Thus, the Chinese kongsi were abruptly left alone once again, known as the Period of Neglect.

Period of Neglect (1825-1839)
Three events stimulated the Dutch absence in the Chinese kongsi for the time being: van Grave's death from pirates in August 1825, the heavy financial losses suffered by Batavia due to the costly Java War, and the growing importance of the traders in British Singapore, which harmed the interests of Malay merchants. Instead, the Dutch took to cracking down on illegal Chinese smuggling from Singapore into West Borneo; this proved to be unworkable, despite their efforts. One such trader, the British trader G.W. Earl, neogotiated with the Dagang kongsi to sell his opium cargo, which angered the Dutch authorities greatly.

Continuing with the trend of less government involvement, some even proposed the formulation of West Borneo as a free trade zone, in acknowledgment that this would mean unlimited smuggling and immgration from China, Thailand and Vietnam. To the Dutch, it was impossible to levy any taxes and control the local population without any sort of massive governmental involvement.

All of these plans never came to fruition, and in reality, the Dutch absence allowed the kongsis to resume their former expansion of power. In this period, Zhengbao had abdicated, and two more leaders inherited the presidency: Luo Pai, one of the four exiles to Batavia, and Li Debo, a powerful man from Kengwei that fostered economic growth in the kongsis.

Kengwei-Dagang Conflict (1837-1839)
However, one internal calamity rocked the kongsis. The administration of Wen Guanshou following Debo saw a rift deepening the Dagang and Kengwei kongsis. Kengwei, along with its ally Xiawu, conspired to build a new mine and water reservoir around Kulor before the Dagang can, in the face of exhausion of mining sites. Guanshou found out about the plot, and told Kengwei that they had to destroy the mine and reservoir to avoid trouble. After Kengwei and Xiawu sent their delegations to Dagang to defend themselves, they were promptly arrested and a meeting date was decided later, and guards were sent to station at Pangkalan Batu, a town in Xin Bafen's territories. Tensions heightened when the Shiwufen kongsi house burned down, and Kengwei and Xiawu were accused. Guanshou attempted to mediate by releasing the prisoners, but forgot to recall the guards at Pangkalan Batu, who killed the delegation when they arrived.

This was the last straw for the two kongsis. A letter was sent to the Kengwei and Xiawu miners in Larah, telling they will flee to Lanfang in the middle of the night. The miners rallied around Kengwei's clerk, one Wu Jinlai, not knowing he was already in association with the Dagang. Here, he fled to join the Dagang kongsi, who marched to Xiawu and found the Kengwei had abandoned the kongsi. As Dagang celebrated their victory, Xiawu send a contingent of men to the Sambas sultan, requesting land be opened in Baluo so they can newly settle there, away from the pressure of Dagang. The sultan agreed, and a plot of land was opened up near Baluo, and in 1839, 700 men and women packed to take its leave. Dagang absorbed the former lands of the Kengwei and Xiawu.

Changes among Kongsi
The changes that characterized the 1840s were generally not for the better, relations-wise. The Heshun name has all but dissapated, and Dagang was in its stead. Its relations with Santiaogou had deteioriated considerably, something the Dutch exploited during the bitter Kongsi Wars of 1850. Relations with the native Dayaks also slowly broke down as well: in 1841, the Dagang sent out a contingent of men to deal with rebellious Dayaks who have been killing Chinese settlers in Larah. A year later, a Shiwufen Chinese family was massacred as they were preparing to leave for China, leading to an alliance between Shiwufen and Dagang to exterminate the Dayaks near Lumar.

Relations between the Chinese kongsi and the Malays and Dutch grew complicated as well. Many Malay sultans were increasingly falling into financial destitution, and the Dutch blamed the Chinese for their aggressive tactics and independent-mindedness. Indeed, a Dutch report discussed the purported tax the Chinese of Larah imposed on the native Dayaks. As questionable as some of these claims were, it was enough to drive Dutch interest back into the Chinese communities.

The Smuggling Incident at Sedau (1850)
The Dutch magistrate to arrive directly to the kongsi to reignite relations was Resident of West Borneo, F. J. Willer, a man who despite appearing to owe sympathy to the Chinese, was instrumental in its ultimate downfall. The Chinese had not made a good first impression; immediately after his ascendancy in 1850, Willer was confronted with a complaint of a Chinese vessel laden with smuggled goods, including salt, opium, and gunpowder.

Rather than confront the Dagang kongsi, who had almost certainly known about this vessel, Willer decided to install a blockade on Sedau, ensuring the vessl cannot depart, and sent its captain to Sambas for punishment. Even after being confronted with a frustrated Dagang envoy, Willer didn't move from his original decision; the smuggling had become detrimental on both the Dutch and Malay sultans, and he was not about to let the problem slip through once again. The kongsi leader at Djintan, the closest settlement controlled by Dagang from Sedau, invited them to their stronghold to "peacefully neogotiate", which Willer refused. After arriving the following day, the Dutch were shot upon, and a contingent of Sambas soldiers were called upon to take Djintan. Despite its success, Willer returned to Sambas after the commander of the soldiers, the sultan himself, hesitated.

The Dutch retreat also signified changes in the political status quo. Colonial advisors compared the resilience of the kongsi to the loss of Dutch Formosa, quoting that they will again lose their land to the Chinese. It was majorly decided, therefore, that to enforce full Dutch hegemony over West Borneo, the kongsi must cease to exist as a whole.

Reunification of Heshun / Battle of Pemangkat (1850)
The month following the Sedau incident was tense for both sides. Dagang offered to pay a fee for the damage, and also sent a letter of apology to the sultan of Sambas. A series of Dayak massacres on Chinese localities in Budok and Lumar forced the Lintian and Shiwufen kongsi to re-establish an alliance with the Dagang, though who orchestrated the Dayak attacks is uncertain (it is later reveals it was most likely a frightened sultan of Sambas who called for the Dayaks, for fear of the Chinese attacks Sambas itself). The theory of Santiaogou being involved won out; indeed, suspicions were peaking as Santiaogou had intercepted that same letter to Sambas weeks prior, and oddly Santiaogou settlements have been spared.

Dagang and its new allies sent armies to the Santiaogou towns of Seminis and Sepang in July, along with other small towns. When the path to Sambas was opened, many in the city fled to Sarawak, but the Heshun turned its focus toward Pamangkat instead, whose position at the mouth of the Pamangkat River meant Dagang can completely seal off trade with Sambas. After weeks of fighting, the Santiaogou fled to the opposite side of the river (under Sarawak jurisdiction), and Pamangkat was captured in August.

It was soon Dagang's turn to be on the defense. Santiaogou had called upon Dutch reinforcements, and only after Santiaogou in Pamangkat was capitulated, did the contingent, under Lieutenant-Colonel Sorg, arrive to Borneo. After several misleads and natural obstacles, Sorg arrived one month later, and took over Pamangkat, slaughtering all soldiers in Pamangkat's kongsi house. When the house was blown up by a Dagang soldier, Sorg and his injured troops were forced to retreat, before returning for shelter into the kongsi house as Dagang soldiers harassed them. They were laid at siege for two days; Pamangkat was set aflame and Sorg died from his injuries, but at least Dagang retreated. Captain Bade, assistant commander along with Sorg, took control of his command. Despite both sides claiming they had won, it is still up for a point of contention.

Government
Modes of governance, employed by the Heshun zongting, were heavily reminiscent of earlier Chinese social structures on West Borneo, who were in turn taken from their Chinese homeland. In West Borneo, the discrimination of the Chinese miners by the Malay overlords, along with attacks from the native Dayaks in the early days, led to the formation of governments larger than unitary brotherhoods and associations to protect themselves from the looming abusive practices from their superiors.

Administrative Buildings
The ting, or the assembly hall, was the nucleus of governance for all kongsi, with the ting manifesting itself as the center of judicial and legislative activity for the Heshun. Heshun's assembly hall was located in Montrado, where its high position around a cauldron shaped valley provided easy defense. The main hall included conference rooms, a hostel, and a prison, and its annex included a temple. Kongsi houses were also constructed for the businesses of individual kongsis. The shangwu (upper house) and xiawu (lower house), two fortified buildings, were built by the Dagang kongsi. The early Santiaogou also had a kongsi house in Montrado before 1822.

Positions of government
The Heshun zongting had a kongsi republic styled system of government, with a stratified tier of authority. Listed in order of importance:


 * Zongting dage (总厅大哥), "'big brother' of the zongting". The high chief of the Heshun bureaucracy. Their duty was to preside over conferences between the various zongting and more local leaders. Entrusted with general doings of the general headquarters.
 * Tingzhu (厅主), "deputy". Appointed representatives of the kongsi. Together, with the laoda (mentioned below), they formed the zongting council and presided over the elections of officers and formed tax levies. They resided in the assembly hall.
 * Xiansheng (先生). Secretaries. Were in charge of the correspondence, as well as receiving guests of honor. Due to their more or less permanent positionship, they held large amounts of influence.
 * Zhazhu (栅主). Presided over the levying of taxes on goods, and organizing militias during wartime.
 * Junshi (军师). Commander in chief of kongsi armies.
 * Jiulang (酒廊). Levied taxes from farmers in kongsi territory.
 * Fushou (福首), "temple headman". The religious figureheads of each kongsi community, organized festivals and administered the common interest.
 * Ketou (客头). Influential merchants, mainly from Montrado, and share-holders in Chinese goldmines. Their influence often dominated important decisions of the zongting.
 * Laoda (老大). An elected village chief.

Change in the Kongsi's economy
The reassertion of Dutch imperialism into Chinese politics coincided with the depletion of gold mines, especially around continually-inhabited areas of West Borneo. Compared to the late 18th century, virtually all of the goldmines around Montrado dried up, leading to a larger dispersal of Chinese miners. Though figures differ, the depletion of gold has led to the Chinese settlers to diversify their trade.

As the once complete monopoly on provisions trade like opium were lifted off of the Malay merchants, many Chinese switched from mining to agriculture. Though agricultural Chinese had existed before the formation of the Heshun, many Chinese relocated themselves fertile land, like the mouth of River Sambas, to grow rice, sugarcane, fruit, and vegetables (even in the present day River Sambas is known as the granary of West Borneo). In Larah, soybeans were grown by Chinese farmers, who then developed a bustling tofu processing industry. Though experiments with sugar and coffee plantations did occur, very little Chinese were forced by the Dutch or Malays to grow cash crops. Almost all were independent small farmers.

For Chinese merchants, other industries proved to be very profitable. Shipyards and sawmills in settlements like Pontianak, Sebangau, and Kampong Baru became owned by Chinese merchants. Ironworking, distilleries, gambling halls, opium dens, also influenced the kongsis more than before.