User:Marshall.833/sandbox

Topic: The origin of language and speech in humans

Ackermann, Hermann, Steffen R. Hage, and Wolfram Ziegler. "Brain Mechanisms of Acoustic Communication in Humans and Nonhuman Primates: An Evolutionary Perspective." Behavioral and Brain Sciences (2014): 1-84. Cambridge Journals. Web. 14 Sept. 2014. .

This article explains how the basal ganglia is an important part of the brain which helps humans communicate, and how it, along with specific FOXP2 mutations, have helped humans create speech and language. This is important for my paper, as it shows how this has adapted in other primates, how this can relate to humans, and why other animals are not capable of this unique ability.

Brinck, Ingar, and Rikard Liljenfors. "The Developmental Origin of Metacognition." Infant and Child Development (2012): N/a. Web. 14 Sept. 2014. .

This article deals with metacognition, which is the ability be aware of and understanding one’s own thought process. This is key when dealing with speech, as communication is based on being able to express one’s thoughts. This article deals with the origin of metacognition in the human brain, and how it develops over time.

Perreault, Charles, and Sarah Mathew. "Dating the Origin of Language Using Phonemic Diversity." Ed. Michael D. Petraglia. PLoS ONE 7.4 (2012): E35289. Web. 14 Sept. 2014. .

This article is very important, as it uses the phonemic diversity of language to estimate the date in which languages were first started to be used, and explains the process of how they did this. This is important as it gives an estimated time frame in which humans started to first use speech, which I can then use to compare to the humans that were alive during that time.

Greenhill, S. J., Q. D. Atkinson, A. Meade, and R. D. Gray. "The Shape and Tempo of Language Evolution." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 277.1693 (2010): 2443-450. Web. 14 Sept. 2014. .

While this article discusses the origin of language, it also discusses the evolution of language itself over time. This is important, as I can use it to discuss how complex language has gotten, and compare that to the evolution of ourselves as well.

Plotkin, Joshua B., and Martin A. Nowak. "Language Evolution and Information Theory." Journal of Theoretical Biology 205.1 (2000): 147-59. Web. 14 Sept. 2014. .

This article shows how the evolution of language relates to the information theory, which is the study of coding information in the form of sequences. This shows that the human brain is able to associate signals, such as speech, into meaning. This can be related back to metacognition, and how we are able to produce speech through signals to express our thoughts. --

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_language

Hello! I am looking at ways that this page can be improved, and I would really appreciate your feedback on the matter. Firstly, a lot of the citations are missing and are needed in the reference section. I feel like finding these citations will greatly improve the quality of this page. Also, I feel like an explanation of the Phonemic Diversity is needed, as it is the most accurate dating of the origin of language. Lastly, I found an article which describes the evolution of language using the information theory. This can be found on the infomormation theory wikipedia page, but I think it might be relevant to add it to this page as well. Marshall.833 (talk) 19:59, 30 September 2014 (UTC) T.M.

Using phonemic diversity, a more recent analysis offers directly linguistic support for a date closer to 150,000-300,000 years. This is done by measuring the amount of phonemes in African languages, and then using this to estimate how long it would have taken for these phonemes to form. [33] -- 300 Word Wiki Page Edit

A study done by Quentin D. Atkinson [14] uses the idea that humans first originated in Africa, and that as they migrated to other areas, they were put under the founder effect. Successive population bottlenecks occurred as they moved, which led to a decrease in genetic and phenotypic diversity. He argues that these bottlenecks can also be applied to human culture and language, which can be shown through phonemes. A phoneme is a unit of sound that is used to differentiate between words. The number of phonemes in a language depends on the size of the population. Smaller populations have fewer phonemes. Also, languages can naturally lose and gain phonemes. However, due to the drift process, humans also lost phonemes as they migrated away from Africa. The study shows that the further away the language is from Africa, the fewer phonemes it contains. This can be seen even today, as African languages have the largest amount of phonemes, while languages from areas in Oceania, the last place humans migrated to, have the least. This study is crucially important to a recent analysis that uses phonemic diversity, rather than cognate diversity, in order to determine the date in which language first arose. However, it is heavily relied on the study done by Atkinson. They determine the rate at which phonemes develop naturally, and compare this rate to some of Africa’s oldest languages. The results show that language first evolved around 350-150 KYA, possibly earlier, which is around the same time that modern day humans evolved. [33]The study also mentions that the date should be used as a minimum estimate, meaning that the origin of language could be even older. However, due to the fact that the Atkinson’s hypothesis is not universally accepted by linguistics, the accuracy of the study is in question. -- FINAL DRAFT STARTS HERE

Origins and Evolution of Language

Communication through language has been a prominent behaviour in humans for as long as we have been around. However, when language evolved, and how it spread, is still unknown. There is not enough evidence to support a single theory. Linguistic experts have been studying this for years, and are trying to use the evolution of language today to predict when it first arose. Discovering the origin of language is extremely important, as it is a behaviour that humans have developed that makes them unique, and has given them a very clear advantage over other species.

While we may not think about it, language does evolve in a similar pattern as how animals evolve in nature. For example, how humans speak today is unlike how they would have spoken 100 years ago. There are many levels of language evolution, such as grammar, vocabulary, and the sound of the speech itself, much like how there are many levels of evolution in a species, such as population, species, and cellular level. The definition of language is also creating challenges for many linguists, such as how we still do not have a set definition for species (Steels, 2000). One reason why it is so hard to show language is evolving is because of how fast language evolution occurs (Dunn, 2005). Most linguists compare cognate words, words that are related in form and meaning, when estimating language evolution. However, when looking at languages that are older than 6,000 to 10,000 years old, it is impossible to tell whether these words are similar due to chance, or if they actually come from a common ancestral form. Other methods must be used in order to be more accurate. One method is looking at the structure, or grammar, of language. The structure can be passed through populations, and change over time, but only under special conditions. Because of this, grammar similarities can be seen in populations where traditional cognate words similarities cannot. Unfortunately, research still needs to be done in order to determine if this is due to common ancestry, or just homoplasy.

Others argue that the key to learning more about language evolution is through typological data, which are constant throughout all languages and are unable to be passed through populations. Typological data hypothetically evolves slower than cognate words, making it better to study the relationships between languages. However, studies have shown that typological data evolves at the same rate as cognate words, so it can only be used looking at languages in the same time period (Greenhill, Atkinson, Meade, and Gray, 2010). This is because typological data shows homoplasy, meaning it is less reliable for showing common ancestry.

There are many hypotheses on how to predict the earliest dates in which language could have evolved. One study uses phonemic diversity, rather than cognate diversity, in order to determine the date in which language first arose (Perreault and Mathew, 2012). However, it is heavily relied on a study done by Atkinson, which first must be explained.

The Atkinson study uses the idea that humans first originated in Africa, and that as they migrated to other areas; they were put under the founder effect (Atkinson, 2011). Successive population bottlenecks occurred as they moved, which led to a decrease in genetic and phenotypic diversity. He argues that these bottlenecks can also be applied to human culture and language, which can be shown through phonemes. A phoneme is a unit of sound that is used to differentiate between words. The number of phonemes in a language depends on the size of the population. Smaller populations have fewer phonemes. Also, languages can naturally lose and gain phonemes. However, due to the drift process, humans also lost phonemes as they migrated away from Africa. The study shows that the further away the language is from Africa, the fewer phonemes it contains. This can be seen even today, as African languages have the largest amount of phonemes, while languages from areas in Oceania, the last place humans migrated to, have the least. The study mentioned earlier uses the Atkinson study to support their hypothesis. They determine the rate at which phonemes develop naturally, and compare this rate to some of Africa’s oldest languages. The results show that language first evolved around 350-150 KYA, possibly earlier, which is around the same time that modern day humans evolved (Perreault and Mathew, 2012). The study also mentions that the date should be used as a minimum estimate, meaning that the origin of language could be even older. However, Atkinson’s hypothesis is not universally accepted by linguistics, so the accuracy of the study is in question.

Some linguists argue that we should be looking at language evolution in the context of a population, such as in species, instead of based on typology or cognate words (Steels, 2000). They argue that human individuals in a population vary in the way that they use language, such as how an individual in a population can vary in nature. Looking at language evolution this way would account for all variation in a population. Also, we can apply natural selection to populations; such as we do in evolution. Each individual has a different knowledge for vocabulary, grammar, and accent. For example, if a population were to use a word more commonly, it is more likely that the entire population has knowledge for that specific word. Variations of language are more likely to spread throughout a population, very similar to how natural selection works.

Another way to look at language evolution is to look at speech evolution. While we may think the two are the same, it’s very important to be able to differentiate the two when looking at their evolution. Language is the way that we express complex concepts, such as through grammar, which can also work with gestures as well as vocally. Speech is the sounds that we make in order to communicate. It is argued that it is hard to study the evolution of language due to the lack of homologues in other animals (Fitch, 2000). As stated before, language is one of the many things that make us unique as humans. However, there are many shared traits of the production of speech in animals, such as speech producing anatomy. Speech evolution is a completely different topic, so it will not be discussed as broadly, but it is still vital when talking about language evolution.

Another important aspect of language, besides speech, is the gestures that we use. Though it may seem unimportant and even optional at a first glance, for some humans, the use of gestures is essential for communication, as they themselves may be unable to hear. Because of this, sign language should be at the same level of any other language. However, a study argues that these gestures originated or even predates the original human language (Armstrong, Stokoe, and Wilcox, 1994). It is shown that both signing a language and speaking a language use similar neural structures, and require the same level of cognitive power, which mean that the two are very similar. We even subconsciously use gestures when trying to communicate with someone who speaks a different language. This shows that language and gestures go hand in hand.

These many theories are very important to finding the origin of language. If we understand how language evolves on an everyday basis, we can use it to find out how we were able to form language in the first place. Many also ask why we developed such a complex form of communication, while animal communication is very short and simple. Communication is key to survival. Communicating benefits the individual speaking and the individual listening. However, there are many opportunities for error, so natural selection will favour simple and short phrases for only very important concepts. This is what we see in animals. Animals use communication for many things, such as mating and alarm calls. However, this is not what we see in humans.

One study argues that the reason humans are able to overcome this barrier is through word formation (Plotkin and Nowak, 2000). Word formation is the key to the uniqueness of human language. Because of it’s combinational behaviour, there is an infinite number of ways to produce speech. The study applies the informational theory, a branch of applied mathematics used to evaluate information, to the evolution of language. It shows that word length affects the maximum fitness of a language. In fact, the fitness increases exponentially with increasing word length. However, we do not see languages with extremely long words today. This is because there are limiting factors. It takes more effort to memorize longer words, which leads to a decrease in communication. There is a point where the two meet to maximize the fitness of the language.

Language evolution is still in the process of being studied. We do not know enough to say for sure how it evolves and spreads, or even how it originated. There are many theories and methods that are being used in order to further research the topic, but without direct evidence, it is very hard to say anything with confidence.

Works Cited

Armstrong, David F., William C. Stokoe, and Sherman E. Wilcox. 1994. Signs of the Origin of Syntax. Current Anthropology 35.4: 349.

Atkinson, Q. D. 2011. Phonemic Diversity Supports a Serial Founder Effect Model of Language Expansion from Africa. Science 332.6027: 346-49.

Dunn, M. 2005. Structural Phylogenetics and the Reconstruction of Ancient Language History. Science 309.5743: 2072-075.

Fitch, W.tecumseh. 2000. The Evolution of Speech: A Comparative Review. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4.7: 258-67.

Greenhill, S. J., Q. D. Atkinson, A. Meade, and R. D. Gray. 2010. The Shape and Tempo of Language Evolution. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 277.1693: 2443-450.

Perreault, Charles, and Sarah Mathew. 2012. Dating the Origin of Language Using Phonemic Diversity. Ed. Michael D. Petraglia. PLoS ONE 7.4: E35289.

Plotkin, Joshua B., and Martin A. Nowak. 2000. Language Evolution and Information Theory. Journal of Theoretical Biology 205.1: 147-59.

Steels, Luc. 2000. The Puzzle of Language Evolution. Kognitionswissenschaft 8.4: 143-50.