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Geography in Hinduism, is based on the Hindu scriptures that focuses on the environments in the universe (mostly on the Natural environment). For example, it describes the fourteen Lokas (realms), stars and planets in the universe. It also provides locations of continents, kingdoms, tribes, mountain ranges, water bodies and living things (types of plants and animals). The scriptures also account the mountain ranges and water (mostly rivers and lakes), which are now changed by natural land formations, Human activites on and near the area or by Climate change. These views are based on the Vedas, which depict an extreme antiquity of the universe and history of the earth.

Living Things
Hinduism is sees all living beings from animals down to insects and microscopic creatures with aspects of God, having souls of their own, going through the same process of births and deaths as human beings (reincarnation). Depending upon their past Karma, they classify all living beings into three kinds: those born from seeds and sprouts, those who are born from eggs and those who are born from womb. The universe, including living things and non-living things are said to be created by usually Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Mahadevi, some of them or all together (see Hindu Cosmology). The difference is in terms of their physical bodies and the number of tattvas (principles), gunas (qualities), elements (mahabhutas) and senses associated with them. The Jivas (souls) are subjected to the limitations of consciousness and capacity, induced by the activity of Prakriti (Nature). When they overcome their limitations and regain their true consciousness, they become liberated, though this is more easily attained when in a human form. Shaivism goes one step further and considers all living beings as pasus (animals) in contrast to pati or Siva who is the lord of all (pasupathi). The pasus are Siva differentiated as individual beings subject to the bonds (pasas) of egoism, delusion and karma. The idea of a hierarchy determines a kind of sacred inequality differentiating all biological species, sometimes even differentiating the various ethnic groups within humanity. This idea functions well within Hinduism for promoting good behavior, but it assumes that animals are situated at a significantly inferior level when compared with the lowest caste of humans. This devaluation of animals is counterbalanced by the many sacred texts, for instance in the Rig Veda and the Atharva Veda, where we find praise toward anyone who shows sensitivity toward animals. It is counterbalanced also by the belief that Hindu deities reincarnate as animals, especially as monkeys and cows, for instance Rama and Krishna. In fact, detailed studies indicate that the respect Indian religions show toward animals is supported by the strong symbolic link eventually established between the various animal species and the various divinities. According to Hindu creationists all species on earth including humans have "devolved" or come down from a high state of pure consciousness. Hindu creationists claim that species of plants and animals are material forms adopted by pure consciousness which live an endless cycle of births and rebirths. Ronald Numbers says that: "Hindu Creationists have insisted on the antiquity of humans, who they believe appeared fully formed as long, perhaps, as trillions of years ago." Hindu creationism is a form of old earth creationism. According to Hindu creationists the universe may even be older than billions of years.

Species of Living things
An ancient Hindu text, Padma Purana, which is contemporary to the Bhagavad gita not only says that there are 8.4 million different species on Earth, but also categorizes or classifies them as follows, but it is evident in the Hindu scriptures and even stories that species of animals increase, deplete and change over time (see the Kakudmi story)

• Total number of species on Earth – 8.4 million

• Jalaja (Water based life forms) – 0.9 million

• Sthavara (Immobile implying plants and trees) – 2.0 million

• Krimayo (Reptiles) – 1.1 million

• Pakshinam (Birds) – 1.0 million

• Pashavah (terrestrial animals) – 3.0 million

• Manavah (human-like beings) – 0.4 million

Usage in Human Environment
Animal science (pashu vidya) dealt with various aspects of animal life and how to tame, train and use them for domestic or military usages. Animals were used in trade, hunting, animal fights, gambling, defense, transportation, sacrificial ceremonies, medicines, gifts and food. Snakes or snake poison were used to kill enemies or even kings. Animal science (pashu vidya) dealt with various aspects of animal life and how to tame, train and use them for domestic or military usages. There were separate treatises on taming and training elephants, horses, camels, bulls etc. Animals were classified into groups based on their origin (oviparous or mammalian), anatomy, number of legs, number of sense organs, diet, behavior, dominant quality (guna), habitat etc.

Anceint Hindus believed that animals had the ability to communicate in their cryptic languages and that gods had the natural ability to communicate with them while human beings needed to develop psychic ability to do so. In the Hindu mythology we find animals trying to acquire spiritual knowledge from enlightened masters by loitering around them and listening to their discourses. Animals such as cows, lizards, crows, cats, vultures and owls were used to read signs and portend future or determine auspicious and inauspicious moments. There is a whole branch of science dealing with the medicinal value of certain animal parts and products (Ayurveda etc). Sacrificing animals to appease the deities was an ancient tradition which continued for long, but as time went by, it became increasingly uncomfortable (as many turn to animal rights and non-violence towards all) to the extent that it is no more appreciated in most Hindu sects, though it is rarely practiced today.

Continents
The Hindu scriptures had divided the eastern world land mass into four continents; namely Jambu-dvipa (South), Uttara-Kuru (North), Purva-Videha (East) and Apara-Godaniya (West). Jambu-dvipa is more or less synonymous with Bhārata (Indian Subcontinent) but the names and boundaries of the others are altered from time to time reflecting the changes of the political and cultural situations around the world (Presently, it is quite complex to map them land to land with today's geography, mostly due to land changes by natural and human interventions and loss of sufficient information throughout time). Continents which are bordering with each other are based on Mount Meru, which is described to be at the centre of the Earth.

Southern provisions
Jambu-dvipa', which is also called Sudarṣana-dvipa, is the Indian subcontinent, located south of Mt. Meru. It has four mountain ranges protruding from the central of Mount Meru, which are known as vaksaskāra (tusks). The Mahabharata while naming 4 world continents, calls "Jamvu-dvipa otherwise called Bhārata." The Surya Siddhanta is the same way. The Vishnu Purana recognizes Bhārata as the most sacred because it is the "karmabhumi" of spiritual practitioners, and it is also referred to as a "srestha-bhumi". Rajasekhara also divides his Kumari-dvipa (India) into five divisions; Udichyadesa (north), Madhyadesa (central), Purvadesa (east), Pachimdesa (west), and Daksinapatha (south.) This area is one of the most sacred place to Hindus of all sects and other Asian religions. Besides Mt. Meru, the other venerated mountains in this continent are Kailash, which is also called Jambu-sandha and "the huge mountains of Hemakuta" in the Mahabharata. In addition to these names, India is also known as Kumari-dvipa (or Kumarika), Indostan, and Ajanabha-khanda.

Based on cardinal directional
In Yaksha's era, the subcontinent was thought of as divided into three; Udichya (North), East (Prachya), and Dakshina (South). In the Dharma Shastra of Baudhayana there were also 3 recognized divisions of India. Then five divisons (Panchasthala) were Uttarapatha or Udichya (the North), Madhyadesa (the middle country), Purvadesa or Pracya (the East), Aparanta or Praticya (the West), and Daksinapatha (the South).

Somadeva Silri refers to a six fold categorization of India, the Vayu Purana 8, and eventually with the Vishnu, Markendaya, and Matsya there were 9 divisions of India.

Based on ethno-political subdivisions
The Vishnu Purana divides India into 9 upadvipas or zones; Indra-dvipa, Kaserumat, Tamravarna, Ghabhastimat, Naga-dvipa, Saumya, Gandharva, and Varuna. The 9th "is surrounded completely by the sea" (sagarasamurta), which could be Sri Lanka.

Bhārata is not Bharata-varṣa. The distinction between the two is seen in the Mahabharata wherein in the enumeration of ethnicities within of the Bhārata, the peoples of Hari-varṣa (Kasmiras, Dardas, Niṣadhas, Khasiras, Darunas, Kamvojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Hunas, Parasikas, and Mlecchas) as well as those of Kimpurusha-varṣa (Kiratas, Mahabhutas, and Chinas) are included in the list.

The Srimad Bhagavatam mentions that this region is affiliated with the lotus flower (Nelumbo nucifera), which is found throughout S.E. Asia. The scripture also mentions the region Puṣkara-dvipa's association with the mango tree, which is found in S.E. Asia. The Srimad Bhagavatam also mentions Puskara-dvipa's effects of the equinox in relation to its northern and southern halves. In fact, the mountain said to divide these 2 is called Mānasottara. This today, is the Mount Kerinci volcano on Sumatra Island, which is just 1°41′48″S of the equator. There are also said to be elephants there, which could mean that the people in the Indian Subcontinent knew that elephans are also found Africa and Southeast Asia.

The ruler of this island, the son of Mahārāja Priyavrata named Vītihotra, had two sons named Ramaṇaka and Dhātaki. He granted the two sides of the island to these two sons and then personally engaged himself in activities for the sake of the Supreme Personality of Godhead like his elder brother Medhātithi.The continents according to this text are:


 * Sāka-dvipa

This continent is located northeast of Sudarṣana-Dvipa. It refers to Northeast (lands West of Ur.al Mountains) Asia beginning from the Indus River.

Its varṣas are Jalada, Kumara, Sukumara, Manivaka, Kusumoda, Maudaki, and Mahadruma.

Those varṣas' corresponding mountain chains are Udayagiri, Jaladhara, Raivataka, Syama, Ambikeya, Ramya, and Kesarin.

Its 7 sacred rivers are the Sukumari, Kumari, Nalini, Dhenuka, Ikshu, Venuka, and Gabhasti.


 * Krauncha-dvipa

This continent is located east of Sudarṣana-Dvipa. It refers to East Asia, which occupies Mongolia, Japan,


 * Sālmali-dvipa

The Yoga-Vasiśṭha mentions this continent as Sveta-dvipa (White Island.) In some descriptions of Sālmali-dvipa, Sveta-dvipa is actually included as a part of the continent.


 * Kuṣa-dvipa

This is Africa.

The continent is named after the Kuṣa grass (desmostachya bipinnata), which, outside of India and S.W. Asia, is abundant in North Africa particularly.


 * Plakṣa-dvipa

This refers to Southwest Asia. It is also known in scriptures, such as Yoga-Vasiśṭha as Gomeda.

It is said to surround Jambu-dvipa. It is also said to possess the plakṣa or fig plant (Ficus carica) after which it is named. The plant is native to the S.W. Asia.


 * Puṣkara-dvipa

This refers to Southeast Asia.

But in the Brahma Purana, it describes the Seven Continents (sapta-dvīpa) and sub-continents of the world, though some other land mass are not mentioned, those which are mentioned are called:


 * Jambū—It is the central one of the seven continents surrounding the mountain Meru, so called either from the Jambū trees abounding in it or from an enormous Jambū tree on Mount Meru visible like a standard to the whole continent. Sec S. M. Ali, Op. cit., chapters V-VII on Jambūdvīpa.


 * Śāka can be identified with Malaya, Siam, Indo-China and Southern China or the South-Eastern corner of the land mass of which Jambūdvīpa occupied the centre.


 * Kuśa contains Iran, Iraq and the south-western corner of the land mass round Meru.


 * Plakṣa identified with the basin of Mediterranian since Plakṣa or the Pākhara tree is the characteristic of warm temperate or Mediterranian lands identifiable with Greece and adjoining lands.


 * Puṣkara covers the whole of Japan, Manchuria and the south-eastern Siberia.


 * Śālmala—the tropical part of Africa bordering the Indian Ocean on the West. It includes Madagascar which is the Hariṇa of the Purāṇas and the Śaṃkhadvīpa of some other writers of scriptures.


 * Krauñca represents by the basin of the Black Sea.


 * Upadvīpas (sub-continents): 1) Bhārata 2) Kimpuruṣa 3) Harivarṣa 4) Ramyaka 5) Hiraṇmaya 6) Uttarakuru 7) Ilāvṛta 8) Bhadrāśva and 9) Ketumāla. According to P.E. (p. 342) there are eight long mountain ranges which divide the island Jambu into 9 countries which look like nine petals of the lotus flower. The two countries of the north and south extremities (Bhadra and Ketumāla) are in a bow-shape. The four of the remaining seven are longer than the rest. The central country is known as Ilāvṛta.

The Shiva Siddhanta mentions seven continents which are known as saptadvīpa:


 * 1) Jambū-dvīpa,
 * 2) Śāka-dvīpa,
 * 3) Kuśa-dvīpa,
 * 4) Krauñca-dvīpa,
 * 5) Śālma-dvīpa,
 * 6) Gomeda-dvīpa,
 * 7) Puṣkara-dvīpa.

Mountains
According to the Śiṣyadhīvr̥ddhidatantram its boundaries are marked as, "The land between the Malyavat (Kunlun) and the Sugandha (Greater Karakoram) mountains is called Ilāvṛta." This land, also known as Meru-varṣa, Mahakasa-varṣa, Videha-varṣa, or Maha-Videha, is the Shaksgam Valley in which Meru (K2 Mountain) resides.Meru means Mountain, its other popular Sanskrit name Sudarṣana means Good Worship. It's other Sanskrit toponyms include Accha, Avatamsa, Diśādi, Girirāja, Lokamadhya, Lokanābhi, Manorama, Ratnoccaya, Śiloccaya, Suryāvarta, Suryāvarana, Svayamprabhā, Uttama, and Vidimsa. Then its Hindi name Lamba Pahar means Tall Mountain, while its Balti name Chogori means Big Mountain. Tibetan names of historical importance were Yungdrung Gutseg (Eternal Nine-Stepped Mountain) and Gangs-dkar Ti-se (Snow White Mountain.) On Mt. Meru is the city of Indra, Vastvekasara. East of Meru is also Indra's city of Devadhani. North of Mt. Meru is Manasa. In the south, on Manasa's backside is Yama's city of Samyamana, to the west is Varuna's city Susa or Nimlocani on Manasa's peak. Siddhas and Brahmarishis are said to reside on it. It is said in the Matsya Purana that there are two Merus; 1 on the north, which is in western Ilāvṛta-varṣa, and 1 on the south, which is west of the Nishada Mountains. The bigger Meru is known today as the K2, while the smaller is known as Gasherbrum. In Sanskrit the taller mountain is called Sumeru (Good Meru), Mahameru (Great Meru), Hemadri (Golden mountain), Ratnasānu (Jewel peak), Karņikacala (“Lotus mountain), and Deva-parvata (Mountain of the Devas), and Sudarsa (Beautiful sight.) It's location is critical towards understanding Vedic geography as it was the ancient centre of spirituality and the crossroads of nationalities. To the west of it is Gandhamadana (Mt. Tirich Mir), to its south Kumunda (Mt. Nanga Parbat), to its east Malyavat or Mandara (Mt. Muztag), and to its north Suparṣva (Mt. Kongur Shan.) Another look at nearby mountains is given as Gandhamadana in the northwest, Malyavan in the northeast, Vidyutprabha (Mt. Nanga Parbat) in the southwest, and Saumanasa (Mt. Saser Kangri) in the southeast.
 * Ilāvṛta-varṣa


 * High Asia Mountain Ranges.jpg-varṣa

This is the part of India covered by the Nishada (Karakoram) Mountains. The mountain chains are known in the Mahabharata as Nishkuta.

This is also known as Deva-Kuru, which is placed in between two mountains Nishada and Nila. Its biggest mountain is Viktapati (Mt. Nanga Parbat), and its chief rivers are the Harita (Jhelum) and Nari (Chenab.) The sacred mountain is also known by various other names such as Vidyutprabha. The are the twin peaks Nun and Kun.This part of Bhārata was held as a special place for the ancient ascetics that they wrote of it as "Bhoga-bhumi" (Land without suffering.) This is where Shambhala lies, and it includes the Olmo Lungring (Dardistan), Airyanem Vaeja (Kashmir), Tuṣita, and Satya-loka paradises. Even in the medieval times Kashmir was called "heaven on Earth." The Matsya Purana speaks of Dardistan as Tomara and Gilgistan as Hamsa-marga, and the Gilgit River which divides them both as Pavana.

Shambhala has become a very popular toponym that describes Kashmir as has been used in multiple scriptures, mainly Buddhist and Bonpa. Even today one can see the symbolism of Shambhala in placenames of Kashmir, such as of Sumbal and Sambal. Scriptures often write of Lankapuri (the Lanka in Wular Lake) also as Shambhala. Because Shambhala is sometimes associated with areas west of it too, it's likely that the kingdom at times included those parts. Even today Ban Sumbal and Sambal are towns in Punjab just west of Kashmir.

The ethnic groups known to have lived here in ancient times were Yakshas, Nāgās, Kinnaras, Vanaras, and Gandharvas. Vidyadharas was a broader ethnic category that included many of the previously-mentioned groups, such as Vanaras. Many Kashmiri Hindus have the surname 'Yaksha' or 'Yachha'. Many Kashmiri toponyms include 'Yaksha', such as Yachha-gram and Yaksha-dara. Even today, the names of Nāgās are existent in placenames, such as Nagnari, Nagbal, and Kokernag. Like the Nāgās, the Sapru are mentioned as another serpent tribe and so 'Sapru' is still a surname among Kashmiri Pandits today.

The Kailash Purana mentions Manasarovara Lake from which rise four rivers in four directions; Westren elephant mounted-Sutlej, Northern lion-mounted Indus, Eastern house-mounted Brahmaputra and Southern peacock-mounted Ganga.
 * Kimpurusha-varṣa

This refers to western Tibet, the land in between the Himalayan and the Ladakh-Gangdise mountain belts, which are known as the Mahahimavata, Herokataka Hemakuta. Kailash is the name of the Hemakuta mountain belt and of an individual mountain as well, the modern Naimona'nyi. North of it is the sacred Mainmaya, and this this northern part of the Gangdise Mountains is known as Mainaka while where the Naimona'nyi lies is the Kailash Mountains. Mt. Kailash often becomes conflated with Mt. Meru (K2), especially because their names sometimes tend to be similar. However, certain scriptures differentiate the two; Dbra-ston mentions two geographical centres addressed as 'Mt. Ti-se'; 1 (Mt. Kailash) in western Tibet and the other (Mt. Meru) in sTag-gZig (Karakoram.) Kailash is also known as Bonpo Bonri, Kangri, and Gangs-dkar Ti-se. The rivers flowing from Kailash are also of importance.

Rasātala-loka and Vitala-loka are both here.

This land is also known as Haimavata-varṣa, Hemakunta-varṣa, and Kinnara-varṣa, and Parvatiya Janapada.

The residents here are known as Parvatasrayins or Parvatiya Ayudhajivis, Mountain-dwellers. The main ethnicities of this region have been mentioned as Kinnaras, Guhyakas, and Kirati. Yakshas have also had a historical presence here. Even in modern times, just as Kashmiris carry the surnames 'Yaksha' and 'Yachha', some tribes in Nepal are identified with Yakshas, such as the Kirati Yakkha. During the Mahabharata Kirati king Jitedasti partook in the war on the side of the Pandavas. A powerful Kirati avatar of Shiva was Kirat whom Arjun attempted to subdue but ended up befriending.

Some of the residents here actually have surnames which symbolize Uttarakhand's history involving important persons and symbols associated with it. G(h)anshala (Shelter for Ganas), Patalia (associated with Uttarakhand being a Pātala), Dandwal (associated with the Dandaka-vana being in Uttarakhand), Dani (Descendant of Danu), Danu (Descendant of Danu), and Jalandhari (Descendant of Jalandhara) are some examples[2].

Mount Gokarna********************* which is so sacred to Shaivism is here, wherein today it is known as Mt. Lajia in Zanda County of Ngari Prefecture of Tibet and is measured in between 6,261m-6,332m. Other historical sacred spots include Markandaka Tirtha (also Markandasrama) at Merupada (not to be confused with Mt. Meru.)

Vitala is within Uttarakhand and although it has historically been a Pātala, it has also been addressed as "Deva-Bhumi" because of the sacred tirths present there.

Skanda was born in Krauncasaila, which is also known as both Kumaradhara and Saravana. Because this mountain is by the Ganga River, he is also known as Jahnasihuta (Son of Ganga.) Because the Guhas live here and he was one of them, scriptures also name him 'Guha' and Guhapriyā. Sacred to him are also Svamipuskarini, Skanda-vana, and Lohita-giri.

Vitala is written of in the Udyoga and Vayu Purana as the land of Asvasira (Hayagriva). He was of the Kinnara ethnicity, specifically the tribe whose totem is the horse.

Bana Daitya, although waa the son of Mahabali, and hence, a ruler of Sutala-loka, also had suzerainty over Vitala-loka. This can be seen even today with placenames in Uttarakhand, such as Banasur Ka Kila (built in medieval-era) fort in Lohaghat in Champawat district, and town of Okhimath named after Bana's daughter Usha (Okha.)Bana is also believed to have had his capital, 'Shonitpur', near Kedarnath.

Bhairava was born here, and he was of the Vetal tribe. Vetala of the same tribe was also from here.

Hatkesvara, considered to be an ascetic avatara of Shiva, was the ruler of Vitala.

Virabhadra and Bhadrakali were both arrived here to confront Daksha at the Gangadwára ashram,(The Ganga River of course, passes through Uttarakhand. Hence, the name of the ashram) during his Yajna.


 * Bharata-varṣa

This is not the same as mordern India but it is the mainland of India, which is the part of the Indian Subcontinent south of the Siwalik Range. It is also known as Hima-varṣa because it is bound by the Himalayas. These mountains are also known as Hemaśṛṅga in the Yoga Darshana.

The varṣa is divided into 7 mountain ranges known as kulaparvatas (mountain families.) They are Mahendra, Malaya (Southern Ghatas), Paripatra (Central Indian or Dakshin Range), Riksha (Siwalik Range), Sahya, Sukimat, and Vindhya (Pir Panjal Range.)

There is a confusion between the Vindhyas (or Vindhya-parvata) and Vindhyapada (or Paripatra.) The Varaha Purana uses "Vindhyapada" for the Central Indian Mountains while the Mahabharata uses "Vindhyapada-parvata." We know that the Pariyatras are the mountains dividing the Subcontinent into north and south because Rishi Baudhyana mentions them being the southern boundary of Aryavarta, as well as from other clues, such as the Manduka tribe's symbol being on the coins of Ujjain in central India (Pariyatra the king is mentioned as the ruler of Mandukas.) Another clue that the Vindhya-parvata is the Pir Panjal Range is from the fact that elephants are referred to as Vindhya-parvatajas (Children of Vindhya-parvata.) Elephant habitats exist in Pir Panjal and connected mountain ranges, such as the Siwalik, but not in the Central Indian mountains. That we further know elephants are native to Kashmir we can see in the Gaja Sastre (Elephant Scripture) wherein they are described as black with white spots on the head.. Kishkindha is mentioned as being north of Vindhyas, to the south of which is a sea (Wular Lake, wherein Lanka lies.) The 'Vindhyas' toponym has been assigned to mountains apart from the Pir Panjal arbitrarily, such as the Barabar Hills. The Pariyatra mountains are also known as Vijayardha-parvata or Vaitadhya-parvata.

The 8 upadvipas or subdivisions are: Svarva Prastha, Chandra Sukla, Avartana, Ramanaka, Manda-harina, Panchajanya, Sinhala, and Louka. Sri Lanka is a part of the subdivisions, also known by many other names including Tamrapami and and Sinhala.